The space industry, with its fuel-burning rockets, requirements for mined metals and inevitable production of space junk, is not currently renowned for its environmental credentials. Can space exploration ever be truly environmentally friendly? Presenter Marnie Chesterton answers a selection of listeners’ questions on the topic of space environmentalism. She starts by examining the carbon footprint of spaceship manufacturing here on Earth, and asking whether reusable rocket ships such as Space X or Virgin Galactic offer a green route for commuting or tourism in low Earth orbit.  Just beyond our atmosphere, space junk and space debris are multiplying at an exponential rate, jeopardising our communications and mapping satellites, and even putting our access to the wider solar system at risk. As more probes and landers head to the Moon and Mars, what plans are in place to deal with space debris far beyond Earth? 
  
Presented by Marnie Chesterton 
Produced by Jen Whyntie for the BBC World Service [Image: Space Junk. Credit: Getty Images]

Can space exploration be environmentally friendly?

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How do we know where a sound is coming from?  Another chance to hear this ear-opening episode, exploring a question from CrowdScience listener Chiletso. One day, he heard his son bounce a ball and instantly knew the direction it was travelling. How?  Anand Jagatia sets out to discover what makes left, right, up and down sound so different.  First, he gets blindfolded, so Alan Archer-Boyd, former auditory scientist and lead engineer at BBC R&D;, can put his sound localisation skills to the test. It turns out that having two ears and pinnae, those flappy bits of cartilage on the side of your head, help a lot.  Professor Eric Knudsen shares how the barn owl’s asymmetrical ears allow it to hunt mice, even in complete darkness.  And Anand uncovers how far he can push his own spatial hearing. Blind activist and researcher Thomas Tajo teaches him how to echolocate like a bat, and Dr Lore Thaler explains what is going on in the brain of experienced echolocators.  This programme was originally broadcast in March 2023.  Presented by Anand Jagatia 
Produced by Florian Bohr for the BBC World Service  Image: Boy with hands at his ears 
Credit: Silke Woweries/Getty Images

How do my ears sense direction?

Today there are over eight billion people on Earth. That’s an awe-inspiring figure… but how does it compare to the vast numbers who came before us? Listener Alpha wants to know how many people have ever existed, so CrowdScience sets out to do a historical headcount. The Population Reference Bureau in the USA estimated this number back in the 90s, and have been updating their calculations ever since. Demographer Toshiko Kaneda explains how their model works, the assumptions it makes – and the huge uncertainties around the number it comes out with. We first need a date for when ‘humans’ first began, so Caroline travels to the Natural History Museum in London to meet human evolution expert Chris Stringer, and marvel at his collection of replica fossil skulls. Chris demonstrates how to distinguish our species, Homo sapiens, from other species like Neanderthals. When did these species first appear - and which of them count as human? And once you know where to start the clock, how do you estimate the numbers of people alive at different points in history? For a population demographer like Walter Scheidel, it helps that some ancient civilisations kept detailed censuses, a few of which have survived to the present day. Caroline and Walter pour over one of these census fragments, and learn how to combine them with other archaeological clues to get some very rough numbers. And finally: what does the future of our population look like? Poonam Muttreja from the Population Foundation of India discusses developments in the world’s most populous country, as well as the big demographic trends ahead for humanity.  Presenter: Caroline Steel 
Producer: Phil Sansom 
Additional Recording: Umaru Fofana 
Editor: Cathy Edwards 
Production Co-ordinator: Connor Morgans 
Studio Manager: Sue Maillot  Featuring:
Toshiko Kaneda, Technical Director of Demographic Research, Population Reference Bureau
Chris Stringer, Research Leader in Human Evolution, Natural History Museum London 
Walter Scheidel, Professor of Classics and History, Stanford University 
Poonam Muttreja, Executive Director, Population Foundation of India

How many people have ever existed?

We spend a lot of our time thinking about climate change, but listener Paul has a question that isn’t usually part of the conversation. He wants to know whether a hotter atmosphere will affect how often volcanoes erupt, or make them more explosive when they do. CrowdScience travels to New Zealand to search for answers, exploring volcanic craters and discovering traditional Maori knowledge about volcanoes. Contributors: 
Geoff Kilgour, Volcanologist, Geological and Nuclear Sciences Taupo, New Zealand
Heather Handley, Volcanologist, University of Twente, The Netherlands 
Pouroto Ngaropo, Historian and Matauranga Māori expert, Rotorua, New Zealand  Presenter: Caroline Steel
Producer: Emily Bird 
Editor: Cathy Edwards
Production Co-Ordinator: Connor Morgans
Sound Engineer: Steve Greenwood (Photo: Icelandic volcano. Credit: KRISTINN MAGNUSSON/Getty Images)

Could climate change lead to more volcanic eruptions?

Many of us have habits that calm us down in times of stress. Things we find deeply comforting, like sucking our thumb or biting our nails. We might not even be aware we’re doing them, but they play a fundamental role in helping us regulate our emotions.   Our question this week comes from CrowdScience listener and nail-biter, Ash. He wants to know where these habits come from. And since his pet dog is also a nail-biter: do we share these traits with other animals?  Recently, a video of a mouse cleaning up a man’s shed took the internet by storm. Was this a house-proud mouse, or was it the animal's way of making sense of a frenetic environment? An emerging field of scientists focusing on animal behaviour and emotions help us shed some light on such questions.   Along the way we meet a dog training specialist, learn what a sniffari is, go for playtime with a thumb-sucking otter, and visit an OCD clinic. We’ll also be getting tips on how to give your pets the best home environment, and meet an animal enrichment officer in South Africa, who knows how to spot the signs of an unhelpful habit developing.  Contributors: 
Karolina Westlund, Ethologist, Stockholm University and ILLIS 
Ben Terry, CBT Therapist, Priory Hospital North London 
Karin Pienaar, Animal Behaviourist, COAPE International 
Candice Ward, Animal Behaviourist, Johannesburg Zoo Jaak Panksepp clip: The science of emotions: Jaak Panksepp at TEDxRainier  Producer: Robbie Wojciechowski
Presenter: Alex Lathbridge
Editor: Cathy Edwards
Production co-ordinator: Connor Morgans
Additional recording by Elna Schutz (Photo: Portrait of border collie puppy biting a curtain. Credit: Rawlstock/Getty Images)

Do animals have anxious habits like us?

Crowd Science listener Maik wants to know what the BMI is and what his BMI score says about his body. He trains dogs for a living and wonders if, like different breeds of dog, we simply have different body types?
 
Marnie Chesterton comes up with some answers, talking to doctors about how the BMI is used and misused in clinical practice, and looks at some alternative methods for measuring our body composition. She also sits down with philosopher Kate Manne to discuss the realities of living in a fat-phobic world. 
 
We hear from Tonga in the South Pacific, where high BMI scores have labelled the country highly obese. But this is not necessarily how Tongans see themselves. 
 
And Marnie finds out if the BMI will continue to be used across the world as an important health marker or whether it is destined for the scrap heap of medical history.  
 
Contributors:
Professor Kate Manne
Dr Francesco Rubino
Dr Naveed Sattar
Professor Brendon Noble
Technician Leah Siegel
Fononga Pulu 
Sela Latailakepa
 
Presenter: Marnie Chesterton
Producer: Richard Walker
Editor: Cathy Edwards
Production co-ordinator: Connor Morgans
Studio manager: Emma Harth

Can space exploration be environmentally friendly?

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