This in-depth essay explores the global history and cultural evolution of surnames. From ancient China's clan-based systems to Europe's medieval occupational names and the colonial imposition of surnames across Africa and Asia, it traces how last names developed and why they persist. The piece examines how surnames reflect lineage, profession, geography, and social hierarchy—shaping identity across generations. Legal mandates, migration, gender norms, and diaspora adaptation all influence naming today, making surnames a powerful intersection of history, culture, and bureaucracy.