SOURCE NOTES

The two primary ancient sources for Hannibal's campaign are Polybius and Livy. Polybius, writing within a generation of the events and claiming to have personally traveled the Alpine route, is substantially more reliable on military matters. His account is analytical and attempts genuine historical method. Livy, writing under Augustus, has beautiful narrative prose and less reliable military detail, but preserves certain anecdotes and conversations that suggest access to sources Polybius did not use or did not choose to use.

The characterization of Hannibal in Roman sources presents obvious problems. As Polybius himself noted, the Romans had every reason to portray their greatest enemy as uniquely monstrous. But Roman sources also, somewhat paradoxically, preserved genuine admiration for Hannibal's military genius — to make their own victory mean something, Rome needed to have faced a formidable opponent. Both tendencies, the demonization and the grudging admiration, are present in Livy and should be read with awareness of each.

The Alpine route controversy is genuinely unresolved, though the Col de la Traversette has emerged as the leading candidate from the 2016 microbiological and sedimentological study by Mahaney and colleagues, published in the journal Archaeometry. Polybius traveled the route himself and states that Hannibal used the highest of the western passes, which is consistent with the Col de la Traversette. Sceptics note that ancient geographical descriptions can fit multiple passes, and that the 2016 evidence, while suggestive, does not constitute proof.

• Polybius, Histories Books 3–4 — The indispensable primary source. The character sketch of Hannibal is at 9.22–26. The Alpine crossing is 3.46–56. The Trebia is 3.68–74.
• Livy, Ab Urbe Condita Book 21 — More narrative than Polybius, less reliable on detail. The character portrait at 21.4 is the most famous description of Hannibal in ancient literature.
• Dexter Hoyos, Hannibal's Dynasty: Power and Politics in the Western Mediterranean, 247–183 BC (2003) — The best modern account of the Barcid political context.
• Eve MacDonald, Hannibal: A Hellenistic Life (2015) — The most important recent reassessment, placing Hannibal firmly in his Hellenistic rather than Roman-enemy context.
• Adrian Goldsworthy, The Fall of Carthage (2000) — Reliable on the military narrative, good on the Trebia.
• W.C. Mahaney et al., 'Biostratigraphic Evidence Relating to the Age-Old Question of Hannibal's Route over the Alps,' Archaeometry 59.1 (2016) — The Col de la Traversette paper. Freely available online.
• Serge Lancel, Hannibal (1998) — The French scholarly biography, thorough and careful.