Date: August 21, 2025

Current Status and Impacts of Hurricane Erin with Climate Context and Future Outlook

Hurricane Erin, a massive and dangerous Category 2 storm, is currently making its closest approach to the U.S. East Coast after 10 days of churning across the Atlantic. While its trajectory keeps the center offshore, its immense size (a "sprawling 1,000 miles wide," with a tropical-storm-force wind field extending 325 miles from its center) is causing widespread and significant coastal impacts from Florida to Newfoundland, Canada, and will affect Western Europe as a post-tropical cyclone. The storm's rapid intensification from Category 1 to Category 5 within 24 hours (an increase of nearly 85 mph) is highlighted as a direct consequence of human-caused climate change, linking warmer ocean temperatures to increased storm intensity and potential damage. Evacuation orders are in place for parts of North Carolina's Outer Banks, and 15 U.S. states are under various hazardous coastal alerts. Beyond Erin, a quiet period for tropical development is anticipated for the next 10-14 days in the Atlantic, though the latter half of September may see above-average activity.

I. Current Status and Forecast of Hurricane Erin

• Closest Approach and Movement: Erin has made its "closest approach to the North Carolina coast" and is now moving north-northeastward at 15 kt. It is expected to "continue to accelerate and turn east-northeastward by Friday as it becomes increasingly embedded within the mid-latitude westerlies," eventually reaching a peak forward speed of about 35 kt in 72 hours.

• Life-Threatening Surf and Rip Currents: This is a "Key Message" from the NHC, stating Erin "will continue to produce life-threatening surf and rip currents along the beaches of the Bahamas, much of the east coast of the U.S., Bermuda, and Atlantic Canada during the next several days." Beachgoers are cautioned against swimming, and many East Coast beaches will be closed to swimmers through Friday.
• Coastal Flooding and Erosion:North Carolina Outer Banks: "Storm surge flooding and tropical storm conditions will continue." The surge, accompanied by large waves, will lead to "significant beach erosion and overwash, making some roads impassable." Evacuation orders remain for Hatteras and Ocracoke islands. Up to 4 feet of storm surge and waves up to 20 feet are expected.
• Virginia and Maryland: "Moderate to major coastal flooding is expected," particularly during high tides on Thursday evening, with potential for "numerous road closures and the inundation of homes and businesses near the shore." Waves of 10-14 feet are anticipated.
• Chesapeake Bay Area: "Higher than normal water levels of up to 3 feet may inundate areas along the shores of the lower Chesapeake Bay, with up to a half foot of flooding along the tidal Potomac River."
• Delaware and New Jersey: 1 to 2 feet of water may inundate coastal and bayside communities, making roads impassable. "Dangerous surf will slam the coastline."
• New York and New England: High-surf advisories and coastal flood warnings are in effect.

Detailed Briefing: Hurricane Erin and Active Atlantic Tropical Systems (August 19, 2025)

This briefing summarizes the current status and forecast for Hurricane Erin, along with updates on two other developing tropical waves in the Atlantic, based on information from the National Hurricane Center (NHC) and other meteorological sources as of August 19, 2025.

1. Hurricane Erin: Current Status and Forecast Impacts

Hurricane Erin, currently a Category 2 hurricane, is located a couple of hundred miles northeast of the Southeast Bahamas. While its top winds have weakened, the storm has "dramatically [grown] in size" and is expected to "grow even larger this week," potentially becoming "one of the largest major (Category 3 or stronger) hurricanes on record." This expansion significantly increases its impact potential, as "the increase in the diameter of the system more than makes up for the decrease in wind speed in terms of the amount of energy that the storm puts into the ocean water."

1.1.

1.2. Significant Coastal Dangers and Warnings:

• Rip Currents and Surf: "Life-threatening surf and rip currents" are expected along the beaches of the Bahamas, much of the U.S. East Coast, Bermuda, and Atlantic Canada for the next several days. Rescues have "already been a series of rescues at the beach in North Carolina."

3. Key Takeaways and Recommendations

• Hurricane Erin poses a significant coastal threat to a wide stretch of the U.S. East Coast, Bermuda, and Atlantic Canada due to its expanding size and associated dangerous waves, high surf, and rip currents.
• Coastal North Carolina, particularly the Outer Banks, is at immediate risk for tropical storm conditions, storm surge flooding, and significant beach erosion starting Wednesday night. Mandatory evacuations are in effect for some low-lying areas.
• Even far from Erin's core, life-threatening rip currents and hazardous surf conditions are widespread along the East Coast. Beachgoers must heed local warnings and lifeguard advice.
• Monitor the progress of Erin closely, especially residents along the U.S. Mid-Atlantic and southern New England coasts, and Bermuda, as strong winds are possible Thursday and Friday.
• Two other tropical waves are active in the Atlantic, with the westernmost system having a medium chance of development and approaching the northern Leeward Islands by Friday. While long-range forecasts are uncertain, continued monitoring is essential.
• Stay informed through official sources such as the National Hurricane Center (NHC) and local emergency management offices. Follow all local instructions for safety.

August 17, 1025: Hurricane Erin, recently a Category 5 storm, underwent one of the fastest intensifications ever observed, reaching the second lowest pressure ever recorded for an August hurricane after Hurricane Allen in 1980. While the storm is fortunate to be on a path that avoids direct land impact, its powerful energy will still significantly affect coastal areas.

Key Facts about Hurricane Erin:

• Intensification & Current Status: Erin rapidly intensified to a Category 5, then weakened to a Category 3 due to an "eyewall replacement cycle" which expanded its size. It is forecast to intensify again as it moves north, east of the Bahamas, and will continue to grow in circulation diameter.
• Offshore Track: The storm is tracking west 150 miles offshore of Puerto Rico, will turn north before reaching the Bahamas, and will pass between North Carolina and Bermuda before heading out to sea. This path is "extremely fortunate" in avoiding direct land impact.
• Widespread Coastal Impacts: Despite being offshore, Erin will put "a tremendous amount of energy into the ocean," affecting all coastlines from the Caribbean to Canada, including the Bahamas and the U.S. East Coast.
• Wave & Current Impacts: A larger diameter storm "will move more water and make stronger currents that impact the coast." Beach conditions will be affected in Florida and the Southeast on Tuesday, peaking in the Mid-Atlantic and New England on Wednesday and Thursday.
• Rip Current Warning: Florida, particularly from Palm Beach County north to the Georgia border, will experience noticeable effects, including the "possibility of rip currents." The rule for rip currents is to "swim parallel to the beach."
• Fringe Winds: Eastern North Carolina, the Virginia Tidewater, and the Delmarva Peninsula are most likely to experience "fringe effects from Erin’s winds about Wednesday," though "nothing severe is expected."
• Next African System: Computer models show a disturbance in the eastern Atlantic potentially developing into a "disruptive system" approaching the Caribbean islands by late week.
• Key Themes and Facts on Rapid Intensification:

• Definition of Rapid Intensification: The National Hurricane Center defines rapid intensification (RI) as an increase in wind speed by 35 mph (46 kph) in 24 hours.
• Doubling of Extreme Intensification: In the last 20 years (2001-2020), 8.1% of Atlantic tropical cyclones intensified from a Category 1 or weaker to a major hurricane (Category 3 or greater) within 24 hours. This rate was only 3.2% from 1971 to 1990. For a 36-hour window, the likelihood has "more than doubled" in the modern era (10.3%) compared to the historical era (4.23%).
• Role of Ocean Warming:Primary Fuel: "With warmer oceans serving as fuel, Atlantic hurricanes are now more than twice as likely as before to rapidly intensify..." Oceans "have been setting heat records monthly since April" with "90% of the excess warming that humans have caused to the planet going into our oceans."
• Scientific Consensus: "As anthropogenic emissions have warmed the planet, the world's oceans have warmed at the surface, where average temperatures have increased ~0.88 °C from 1850–1900 to 2011–2020. The rate at which ocean surfaces have warmed has also accelerated, with 0.60 °C of this warming occurring since 1980." This "simultaneous increases in both extreme SSTs and maximum TC intensification rates suggests that human-caused warming has already had a measurable impact on the speed with which TCs strengthen."

Hurricane Erin, the first Atlantic hurricane of 2025, has undergone an "unusually rapid intensification," rocketing from a tropical storm to a "catastrophic Category 5 hurricane" in less than 24 hours. While its center is not expected to make a direct landfall on the U.S. mainland, it poses significant threats of heavy rainfall, flash flooding, landslides, life-threatening surf, and rip currents in the Caribbean and along the U.S. East Coast. The exponential nature of hurricane damage potential underscores the severity of even small increases in wind speed.

Key Themes and Most Important Ideas/Facts

1. Unprecedented and Rapid Intensification:

• Speed of Intensification: Hurricane Erin "exploded in strength to a Category 5 storm in the Caribbean on Saturday, rapidly powering up from a tropical storm in a single day." (AP News) It ramped up from a tropical storm to a Category 5 in a "mere 24 hours," with maximum sustained winds more than doubling to 160 mph (255 kph). (AP News)
• Magnitude of Wind Increase: Mike Brennen, director of the National Hurricane Center, stated Erin raced from 100 mph (160 kph) to 160 mph (257 kph) in "a mere nine hours." (AP News) This represents a "70-kt increase since 24 h ago" as reported by Air Force Reserve Hurricane Hunter aircraft. (NHC Forecast Discussion)
• Historical Significance: Erin is noted as "only the fifth Category 5 hurricane on record to form this early in the hurricane season and the only Category 5 observed outside the Gulf or Caribbean this early in the year." (USA Today)
• Factors Contributing to Intensification: The rapid intensification was attributed to "Warm water ahead of Erin as it moved west, a lack of wind shear and its position far enough away from any land to interfere." (USA Today)
• Peak Intensity: The NHC forecast predicts Erin to reach a "peak intensity of 145 kt" (165 mph) before potential weakening due to environmental factors like increasing northwesterly shear and possible dry air entrainment. (NHC Forecast Discussion)

2. Projected Path and Geographic Impacts:

• Current Location and Movement: As of 11:20 AM AST on Saturday, August 16, 2025, Erin was located approximately "105 miles (170 kilometers) north of Anguilla" and "about 235 miles east-northeast of San Juan, Puerto Rico." (NHC Public Advisory Update; Fox 35 Orlando) It is moving "W or 280 degrees at 17 mph (28 km/h)." (NHC Public Advisory Update)
• Forecast Track: The storm's center is "expected to move just north of the northern Leeward Islands, the Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico over the weekend." (NHC Public Advisory; Fox 35 Orlando) A turn toward the west-northwest is expected tonight, with a decrease in forward speed, and a turn toward the north expected early next week. (NHC Public Advisory; Fox 35 Orlando)
• No Direct U.S. Landfall: "The hurricane is not expected to make a direct hit on the United States," (USA Today; Fox 35 Orlando) with forecasts indicating it "will turn north and stay well east of the U.S. coastline." (Fox 35 Orlando)
• Expansion of Storm Size: Forecasts indicate that "by the middle of next week, Erin is forecast to at least double or triple in size, which will result in rough ocean conditions over the western Atlantic." (NHC Forecast Discussion; USA Today)

The Trump administration is enacting significant policy changes across environmental regulation and space exploration, characterized by a consistent effort to dismantle climate-focused initiatives and streamline regulations, particularly benefiting the commercial space industry. These actions are drawing strong criticism from environmental advocates and scientists, who accuse the administration of climate denial and undermining crucial research

The Trump administration's actions reflect a deliberate strategy to prioritize economic growth and industry expansion, particularly in the commercial space sector, by significantly reducing environmental oversight and dismantling climate-related research and regulatory frameworks. This approach is highly contentious, facing strong opposition from the scientific community and environmental groups who warn of severe and irreversible consequences for public health and the environment. The administration's rhetoric and policies consistently dismiss established climate science, marking a stark departure from previous environmental policies.

Meteorology Matters discusses the escalating challenges posed by extreme heat and potential mitigating strategies. We include the underestimated health burden beyond mortality, the significant economic and infrastructure strain, and the re-emergence of ancient, sustainable cooling technologies. We highlight a critical need for expanded public health interventions and a re-evaluation of current cooling paradigms, particularly in regions with limited access to conventional air conditioning.

A. Underestimated and Broad Health Impacts of Extreme Heat:

While fatalities due to extreme heat are well-documented, new research reveals a broader, less understood impact on morbidity (rates of disease and poor health). This is a critical shift in understanding the full scope of heat's consequences.

• Beyond Mortality: "While scientists have spent decades covering how extreme heat and cold lead to death, new research using data from California emergency departments shows that the heat may be making us sicker too." (Washington Post)
• Increased Emergency Department Visits: A study in Science Advances, tracking 11 years of data from California, found that "emergency room visits steadily increased as temperatures did — particularly among young children." (Washington Post)
• Diverse Illnesses: As temperatures rose, more people visited emergency rooms for "illnesses including those linked to poison, respiratory symptoms and nervous system problems." (Washington Post)
• Vulnerable Populations:Deaths increased in both cold and hot temperatures, "especially among older adults." (Washington Post)
• "Data also showed that children under 5 visited emergency rooms at a higher rate than any other age group." (Washington Post)
• Individuals with "preexisting conditions are more at risk in hot weather." (Washington Post)
• "Tip of the Iceberg": Carlos Gould, lead author of the Science Advances paper, states that "deaths are just the tip of the iceberg when it comes to temperature’s effects on society." He adds, "Hot days can worsen our health far before they lead to deaths…And it can be a large range of things that we get sick from." (Washington Post)
• Indirect Effects and Complex Interactions: The mechanisms linking heat to certain illnesses (e.g., poison-related) may not be clear, suggesting "a very complex interaction between heat and people’s behavior that causes this rise." (Washington Post) Other factors like wildfires, often associated with hot days, can also influence health outcomes.

B. Economic and Infrastructure Strain Due to Insufficient Cooling:

Extreme heat poses a significant economic liability and strains existing infrastructure, particularly evident in regions with low air conditioning penetration.

• Economic Disparity in Cooling Access: There is a stark "AC gap between Europe and America." In Europe, "you wake up after a night of tossing and turning. You’re sticky, uncomfortable, and already dreading the commute. Jammed on a crowded train, you suffer through a heavy delay as your city’s transport infrastructure struggles in the face of extreme temperatures." In contrast, the U.S. generally offers cool, comfortable environments. (Fortune)
• Infrastructure Weaknesses: European transport infrastructure "struggles in the face of extreme temperatures," leading to delays and discomfort. (Fortune) The "grid isn’t up to the job" of supporting widespread AC use. (Fortune)
• Productivity Loss: While not explicitly detailed as an economic impact, the Washington Post article mentions that illnesses can "reduce our productivity.

There has been an unusual and concerning surge in Vibrio vulnificus infections and deaths across the southeastern United States, especially in Florida. This bacterium, commonly known as "flesh-eating bacteria," thrives in warm, brackish seawater and can cause severe, rapidly progressing illness, including necrotizing fasciitis, and has a high fatality rate. While infections are generally rare, experts describe the current situation as "certainly not normal" and are investigating potential contributing factors, including the impacts of recent and forecasted hurricane seasons and environmental indicators like plankton and chlorophyll concentrations. Public health officials are emphasizing preventative measures and immediate medical attention for suspected infections, especially for high-risk people

• Current Toll (as of August 7-8, 2025):
• Florida: 16 cases and 5 deaths reported this year.
• A second death in Bay County was reported within the past three weeks, bringing the state total to five.
• Confirmed cases are spread across various counties including Bay, Escambia, St. Johns, Santa Rosa, Broward, Duval, Hillsborough, Lee, Manatee, Okaloosa, and Walton.
• Louisiana: 17 cases and 4 deaths reported this year, exceeding previous annual averages.
• North Carolina: 7 cases and 1 death reported this year so far.
• Mississippi: 3 cases reported this year so far.
• In total, at least 10 deaths have been attributed to Vibrio vulnificus across these states this year.
• Historical Context (Florida Cases & Deaths):
• 2024: 82 cases, 19 deaths (exacerbated by Hurricane Helene).
• 2023: 46 cases, 11 deaths.
• 2022: 74 cases, 17 deaths (unusual increase due to Hurricane Ian).
• The current 16 cases and 5 deaths in Florida for 2025, while lower than recent full-year totals, are significant given it's "early on in the summer."
• Fatality Rate: Approximately 1 in 5 (20%) people infected with Vibrio vulnificus die, with bloodstream infections being fatal about 50% of the time.

III. Main Themes and Important Ideas

A. Nature of Vibrio vulnificus and Infection Routes:

• Vibrio vulnificus is a naturally occurring "halophilic" bacterium, meaning it requires salt, and thrives in warm, brackish seawater. Most infections occur between May and October when water temperatures are warmest.

1. Primary infection routes:Exposure of open wounds: The bacteria can enter the body through cuts, scrapes, or broken skin exposed to warm salt or brackish water. The Florida Department of Health explicitly states, "Water and wounds do not mix. Do not enter the water if you have fresh cuts or scrapes."
2. Consumption of contaminated seafood: Eating raw shellfish, particularly oysters, is a common source of infection.

B. Severity of Illness and Symptoms:

• While severe illness is rare, Vibrio vulnificus can cause rapid destruction of tissue under the skin, known as necrotizing fasciitis, leading to death within days if untreated.
• Symptoms: Rash, high fever, chills, vomiting, nausea, cramping, abdominal pain, skin breakdown, and ulcers. For wound infections, visible signs can appear within hours, including redness, swelling, painful "bull's-eye" blisters.
• Systemic Infection (Sepsis): The bacterium can invade the bloodstream, causing a severe and life-threatening illness with symptoms like fever, chills, decreased blood pressure (septic shock), and blistering skin lesions.

Recent reports highlight significant disruptions and policy shifts across several key federal agencies, including the National Weather Service (NWS), Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), under the current Trump administration. These changes, characterized by deep federal cuts, staffing reductions, and attempts to alter climate science narratives, have raised serious concerns about public safety, environmental protection, and the integrity of scientific information. While some efforts are underway to restore staffing, the long-term implications of these policies are a major concern.

1. Severe Staffing Cuts and Under-resourcing in Critical Public Safety Agencies:

• National Weather Service (NWS): The NWS experienced "sweeping cuts" earlier this year, losing "more than 500 people" due to the Trump administration's efforts to reshape the federal workforce. This resulted in a total of "more than 550 people" fewer staff since the administration began.
• The Bay Area NWS office in Monterey, for instance, lost a meteorologist, an administrative support assistant, and a facilities technician. The Fremont-based Center Weather Service Unit in Oakland was left with a "single full-time meteorologist" after a forecaster retired, operating with two prior vacant positions.
• These cuts led to NWS offices being "no longer able to operate overnight" and some curtailing "daily launches of weather balloons that send back critical data to power forecasts and forecast models."
• Current employees are working "additional hours with additional responsibilities" to maintain 24/7 operations, facing "pretty daunting" stress, especially for those like the "lone wolf" meteorologist in the Bay Area.
• There is now a plan to hire "hundreds of new employees," with 450 "critical positions" identified, potentially filling up to 770 empty positions. The NWS has been granted direct hiring authority and meteorologists are now classified as "necessary for public safety," exempting them from future hiring freezes. However, the process of filling these roles typically "takes months."
• Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): FEMA has "lost thousands of staff to layoffs, retirements and resignations since Trump took office." This understaffing was acutely felt after the Texas floods in July 2025.
• Most calls to the federal aid hotline in the week after the Texas floods "went unanswered" because the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) "let funding lapse" for call center staffing agreements.
• Internal FEMA logs show that from July 6-10, FEMA answered only "just over 15,000 of the approximately 55,000 calls" from disaster survivors. On July 7th, only "10% of the more than 15,000 calls" were answered.
• The funding lapse was attributed to an "administrative bottleneck created by the Trump administration," where Homeland Security Secretary Kristi Noem "personally signs off on all funding requests for more than $100,000," a change from previous administrations.

1. Systematic Undermining of Climate Science and Environmental Protections:

• Altering Climate Reports and Data: The Trump administration is actively seeking to "update" the US's premier climate crisis reports, known as National Climate Assessment (NCA) reports.

As we head through August, it is typical for hurricane season to awaken in the Atlantic Ocean and the models are starting to hint at changes afoot. Elevated Tropical Activity: The Atlantic basin is entering a period of increased tropical activity, consistent with a "backloaded" hurricane season. Conditions are becoming more favorable for development, with warm ocean temperatures and a "La Niña light" influence.

• Primary Threat: A large, ill-defined tropical disturbance has just moved off the coast of Africa and is the main system of concern. It has a high probability of developing into at least a tropical storm, and there's a "good chance we’ll see Hurricane Erin out of this."
• Uncertain Track: The long-term track of the African disturbance is highly uncertain beyond next weekend. While many forecast models show it turning north offshore of the East Coast, some scenarios suggest a westward track potentially impacting the northeastern Caribbean or even the U.S. coast. It is too early to focus on any one location for impacts.
• Beware of Social Media Hype: Long-range (10-15 day) model forecasts, particularly the GFS model which "loves to spin up a storm... and bring it straight for Florida or straight for the United States," are unreliable and should be disregarded. "Online posts showing an extreme storm impacting some part of the coast are only there to get clicks."
• Other Systems:Tropical Storm Dexter: Has become a non-tropical system and is moving away from the U.S., posing no threat to land.
• Invest 96L (Central Atlantic): Odds of development have been lowered to "low range" and it is expected to turn out to sea, posing no threat to land.
• System offshore Carolinas: Absorbed by a cold front, posing no threat.
• Preparedness: Now is the time for coastal residents to review hurricane preparations.

1. Current Atlantic Tropical Overview

The Atlantic hurricane season is showing signs of increased activity as anticipated, moving towards a "backloaded" season where more significant development is expected later in August and into September. Bryan Norcross of Fox Weather notes, "The Atlantic basin really across the board is becoming more favorable for development."

• Colorado State University (CSU) and NOAA Outlooks: Both CSU and NOAA have released updated forecasts that indicate an above-normal season.
• CSU predicts "16 named storms. Eight of them become hurricanes and three Category Three and above."
• NOAA's similar forecast ranges from "13 to 19 named storms, 6 to 10 hurricanes, and 3 to 5 being Hurricanes of Category Three and above."
• The reasoning for these forecasts remains consistent: warmer-than-normal Atlantic water temperatures ("a slight plus") and a "La Niña Light" condition ("more conducive for storm development") are balanced by "upper level winds over the Caribbean have been very hostile" ("a double minus"). This balance leads to a forecast "slightly above normal."

13% of Floridian Deaths can be attributed to hurricanes and tropical storms? Recent research from both South Korea and the United States reveals a significant and largely underestimated public health burden associated with tropical cyclones (hurricanes/typhoons). Beyond the immediate, direct deaths typically reported, these studies demonstrate a substantial "excess mortality" that can persist for weeks, months, and even years after a storm. This hidden death toll disproportionately affects vulnerable populations, including the elderly, those with lower socioeconomic status, and racial/ethnic minorities. The findings highlight the critical need for expanded public health preparedness and policy measures that account for the long-term, indirect impacts of these increasingly intense natural disasters.

1. Significant and Underestimated Excess Mortality:

• Beyond Direct Deaths: Official government statistics typically focus on immediate, direct deaths (e.g., drowning, trauma). However, studies show that the true mortality burden is far greater due to indirect causes.
• "The true mortality burden related to cyclone exposure may exceed officially reported death tolls, which usually focus on direct injury-related deaths." (Han et al., Korea)
• "Official government statistics record only the number of individuals killed during these storms... Usually, these direct deaths, which average 24 per storm in official estimates, occur through drowning or some other type of trauma. But the new analysis... reveals a larger, hidden death toll in hurricanes’ aftermath." (Young & Hsiang, US - Stanford)
• Quantitative Estimates:South Korea: An average of 150 excess all-cause deaths were estimated for each tropical cyclone during the 2 weeks post-exposure between 2002 and 2023. Daily average increases were 0.084 in all-cause mortality and 0.075 in non-accidental mortality in cyclone-exposed regions.
• United States (Short-Term): For 179 tropical cyclones between 1988–2019, there were 3,112 excess deaths after hurricane-force winds and 15,590 excess deaths after gale to violent storm-force winds in counties with >95% probability of excess deaths. Hurricane Katrina in 2005 was the deadliest, with 1,491 excess deaths.
• United States (Long-Term): A groundbreaking analysis of 501 tropical cyclones from 1930–2015 estimates that an average U.S. tropical cyclone indirectly causes 7,000 to 11,000 excess deaths, persisting for nearly 15 years after the storm. Total estimated deaths since 1930 range from 3.6 million to 5.2 million nationwide, vastly exceeding the official total of ~10,000 direct deaths.
• "A big storm will hit, and there’s all these cascades of effects where cities are rebuilding or households are displaced or social networks are broken. These cascades have serious consequences for public health." (Solomon Hsiang, US - Stanford)
• "This burden is 300–480 times greater than government (NOAA) estimates of 24 deaths per storm on average (22 without Hurricane Katrina) and 11,937 total TC deaths during 1950–2015." (Young & Hsiang, US - Nature)