Brian Holoyda, MD, MPH, MBA, conducts a Masterclass on the history of psychedelic research and how the renaissance of this drug class could affect psychiatric patients.

Dr. Holoyda, a forensic psychiatrist, practices in the San Francisco Bay Area. He also provides psychiatric consultations across the country. Dr. Holoyda has no disclosures.

Take-home points

• The effects of psychedelics are dose dependent and difficult to predict. The impact of psychedelic treatment on violent behaviors was studied since the 1960s with varying results. More recent studies suggest that psychedelic use (excluding phencyclidine, or PCP) is associated with less violent crime.
• Dr. Holoyda recommends that, before psychiatrists treat patients with psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy, patients should be screened for history of violence or aggression while using psychedelics (and in general) and a history of serious mental illness. Patients require informed consent about the risk of violence and interventions used to control aggressive behaviors.

Summary

• In 1960, the Harvard Psilocybin Project included a study in the Concord (Mass.) Prison in which researchers hypothesized that using psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy in prisoners would reduce risk of violent recidivism. The original authors, including Timothy Leary, PhD, published varying results of the study – including that psychedelic use reduced recidivism. However, some argue the overly positive results from the first analysis were attributable to a halo effect. A recent reanalysis showed that the base rate for recidivism in the intervention group was 34%, and not significantly different from that of the control group.
• Psychiatrists have continued to use psychedelic-assisted therapy for patients with psychopathology and treatment-resistant sexual offenders to investigate whether the transcendent experiences can change their personalities, including the development of insight and empathy.
• Dr. Holoyda published a review of all published cases in medical literature discussing psychedelic use and violent behavior. Most of the cases were published in the 1960s-1970s, when psychedelics were viewed negatively as a product of the counterculture era.
• More recent observational studies identified that psychedelics use is associated with a greater likelihood of carrying a firearm as well as intimate partner violence, but these newer studies are fraught, because PCP is sometimes classified as a psychedelic. Other epidemiological studies have identified reductions in violent behaviors associated with psychedelics use, compared with other illicit substances. Those reductions in violent behaviors include a lower probability of supervision failure, and a lower risk of intimate partner violence and drug distribution.
• Peter S. Hendricks, PhD, and associates analyzed data from 225 million individuals who took the National Survey on Drug Use and Health from 2002 to 2014 with a focus on psychedelics use, excluding PCP. They found that a lifetime history of psychedelic use decreased the odds of theft, assault, and arrest for property and violent crime. Studies such as this suggest that individuals who favor psychedelics may be less prone to violent crime rather than a direct effect of psychedelics on decreasing violent crime.
• As psychedelics enter the clinical sphere, clinicians must keep in mind that experiences on these agents are unpredictable. In a study of unmonitored psychedelic use, individuals report putting themselves or others at risk. Others reported behaving aggressively or violently, and others sought help at a hospital.
• Before using psychedelics in a therapeutic environment, clinicians should assess patients’ past use and experience on psychedelics. They also should screen for history of “bad trips,” leading to aggression, agitation, paranoia, and risky behaviors. In clinical trials with psychedelics, individuals with history of bipolar and psychotic disorders have been excluded to reduce the risk of triggering an episode. For medicolegal protection, psychiatrists should engage in a thorough informed consent process before using psychedelic-assisted therapy.

References

Holoyda B. Psychiatric Serv. 2020;71(12): 1297-99.

Holoyda B. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 2020 Mar;48(1):87-97.

Hendricks PS et al. J Psychopharmacol. 2017 Oct 17. doi: 10.1177/0269881117735685.

Carbonaro TM et al.  J Psychopharmacol. 2016;30(12):1268-78.

Metzner R. Reflections on the Concord prison project and the follow-up study. Bulletin of the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies/MAPS. Winter 1999/2000. 9(4).

Arendsen-Hein GW. LSD in the treatment of criminal psychopaths, in "Hallucinogenic Drugs and Their Psychotherapeutic Use." (London: H. K. Lewis & Co, 1963).

Leary T. Psyched Rev. 1969; 10:20-44.

Leary T and Metzner R. Brit J Soc Psychiatry. 1968;2:27-51.

Leary T et al.  Psychother. 1965;2:61-72.

Doblin R. J Psychoactive Drugs. 1998; 30:419-26.

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Show notes by Jacqueline Posada, MD, associate producer of the Psychcast; assistant clinical professor in the department of psychiatry and behavioral sciences at George Washington University, Washington; and staff physician at George Washington Medical Faculty Associates, also in Washington. Dr. Posada has no conflicts of interest.

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