Humanity struggled to contain infectious diseases long before the concept of microscopic germs emerged. The histories of smallpox, polio, and covid-19 illustrate how vaccine development has changed—and in some ways, not changed—in the last 300 years.

Bio: Laura Jenski is a retired university professor and vice-president for research. She received her PhD in oncology and postdoctoral training in immunology from the University of Wisconsin and bachelor's and master's degrees in biology from Northern Illinois University After decades of authoring original scientific research articles, Laura now writes what she loves to read—serious mysteries and farces—for her independent publishing company, Snowbound Stories LLC.

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