According to the new Tallinn Paper by Jeremy K. Davis and published by the NATO CCDCOE, the author proposes that standards of proof applicable to peacetime cyber attribution should be more stringent as the severity of the action in response increases. A more balanced approach would subject attribution of internationally wrongful cyber operations giving rise to countermeasures to a preponderance of the evidence standard. At the same time, any response taken by a state in self-defense should require attribution based on clear and convincing evidence before it is deemed “reasonable”.

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