In the preface of the Phenomenology of Spirit, Hegel states that everything hinges on grasping the True as Substance and Subject. This addresses the shortcomings of Schelling’s system, which Hegel criticizes for its monism, collapsing the distinction between subject and object. Hegel wants a system where the subject is both distinguished from and finds itself in the world.

Hegel critiques Schelling’s system as “a night in which all cows are black,” meaning it excludes specific characteristics. Schelling’s Substance is “inert simplicity,” subsuming the Subject and leaving no room for differentiation. Hegel contrasts this with his own Substance, a “Bacchanalian revel” including its modes, uniting the infinite and finite.
Hegel argues the absolute must include the flux of finitude and appearance, describing Substance as “living force,” laying the groundwork for seeing the absolute as subject. He illustrates this with: “This Substance is, as Subject, pure simple negativity... this reflection in otherness within itself... is the True.”

Hegel associates with holism, rejecting monism. He argues Spirit embodies identity-in-difference to the world, not cut off but not indistinguishable from it. In the Phenomenology, Hegel uses Consciousness to refer to man, shaped by “typical existential attitudes,” progressing through stages of understanding.


Initially, Consciousness operates from sense-certainty, gaining knowledge through direct experience. Hegel argues sense-certainty cannot account for self-awareness. Consciousness posits the object as independent, leading to difficulties. In Perception, Consciousness develops universals, creating a problematic relationship between substratum and properties. Consciousness then views objects as interconnected forces, resulting in dualism between the sensible world and the super-sensible beyond.

Consciousness rejects the super-sensible beyond, mastering the world through action, leading to the dialectic of the object. This shifts to the dialectic of the subject, where Consciousness conceives itself as Subject. The “aporia of the inverted world” leads to the realization that the essence of appearances is in the activity of the subject.

Hegel’s discussion of Stoicism marks a new attitude, seeing reality as permeated by reason. In Reason, Consciousness struggles with the relationship between Subject and Substance, feeling alienated from the ethical substance of Spirit. This alienation is necessary for Spirit’s development, overcoming the opposition between Subject and Substance.

Spirit achieves absolute knowledge, recognizing Substance as the product of its own activity, achieving true freedom. Hegel uses Science for the reflective examination of Consciousness, necessary for absolute knowing. This dialectical thinking recognizes the interpenetration of Subject and Substance, allowing Consciousness to see itself as the author of its world.
In the Phenomenology, Consciousness transitions to Logic, examining categories shaping its development. Logic reconciles Schelling’s philosophy of the absolute with reflection, showing reflection as a function of the absolute. The Logic presents categories constituting both reality and knowledge.

Substance becomes Subject when Consciousness recognizes the world as its own activity. This process of alienation is self-discovery, realizing its power and freedom. Through the dialectic of the subject, Consciousness sees itself as the creator of its world, grasping the absolute as Subject.



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"Dare to use your own reason" - Immanuel Kant