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Further Resources:

Harvard Guide to Writing

Writing Interpretive Political Philosophy Papers

Writing Political Theory Papers

Called The Communist Manifesto, it’s one of the most widely read examples of political works, authored by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels — even though communism in the form initially proposed by the document has evolved, changed, been misused… and often difficult to find working in practice.

They were both born Germany, the majority of the writing was done in the mid-to-late 18oo’s, with the claim that ‘the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles’. The bourgeois (the upper-middle class) are privileged by their domination of the means of production, while the downtrodden working class (the proletariat) struggle under the limitations that society puts upon them, both socially and economically. 

Rather than allowing industry to exploit the people, a proposed socialist period would allow the means of production to be centralised, with the result being a stateless and classless society, where the tyranny of capitalism finally be overthrown. How true this is in theory and practice is something that has been tried and debated since — but the ideas of The Communist Manifesto are still a challenging work, that has led to both revolutions and even nations devoted to its ideals.

Absolute idealism was a systematic view of reality proposed by Hegel, that reality is ultimately realised through the mind and what we consider to be the physical world is an expression of a divine reality. Challenging Kant’s idea that knowledge of god and the soul is impossible, he proposed that because we are Spirits ourselves, we can understand Spirit. Metaphysics is not as unreachable as Kant proposed, and his categories are not structures of the human mind but structures of reality itself. Hegel’s ‘logic’ involves investigating the categories that make Absolute Mind and its development — a theory that has been used by other philosophers such as Marx.

For Hegel, his working out of categories is through the ‘dialectical’ method of thesis, antithesis and synthesis; if the ultimate reality is the totality of rational concepts, it is through a structure that we can understand it. Ultimately, for Hegel, the world is rational and works towards a greater good.

What is the best possible world? And is it really this one? In the writings of French philosopher Voltaire, he satirises the optimism of Leibniz; Voltaire’s challenge to organised religion, the justice system and authoritarian government can be seen in his tale Candide. 

It’s a tale that parodies the unquestioning allegiance to theism can lead to; Candide eventually works his way through to a more practical attitude towards the world. Voltaire was a supporter of an enlightened monarch rather than what he saw as the “idiocy of the masses” in the form of democracy.

With progress and change led by a rational interest in improving the wealth and power of a country, it was an improvement over the uneducated masses and parasitic aristocracy. While he arguably more a writer and enlightened thinker than a ‘true philosopher’, Voltaire has had an undeniable effect on literature and philosophical thinking.

This is a Professor AC Grayling lecture recorded a few years back at Christ Church Grammar school, Perth, on the concepts of truth, realism and non-realism. Professor Grayling has lectured in philosophy at St Anne’s College, Oxford, before taking up a post in 1991 at Birkbeck, University of London, where in 1998 he became reader in philosophy, and in 2005 professor.

He resigned from Birkbeck in June 2011 to found and become the first master of New College of the Humanities, an independent undergraduate college in London. He is a Supernumerary Fellow of St Anne’s College, Oxford. He writes the Thinking Read column for the Barnes and Noble Review in New York, is the Editor of Online Review London, and a Contributing Editor of Prospect magazine.

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797) was a self-educated woman whose response to Edmund Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France was called A Vindication of the Rights of Men. However, she is best known for her work two years later, where she encouraged the human potential for reason, knowledge and virtue in all people — A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. 

For Wollstonecraft, the traditional power that men have over women promotes false virtues such as submitting to their rule without question, and this enforced complacency prevents women’s usefulness to society. By allowing the same rights, they become better parents, educators and follow what Wollstonecraft considers a divine potential to be equals. The opportunity for both sexes to be political thinkers is something she strongly encouraged, and her work are integral to the beginning of women’s rights.

I’m fairly certain it’s rare to find a philosophy magazine that also sells tea…

New Philosopher is an independent quarterly magazine devoted to exploring philosophical ideas — from past and present thinkers on ways to live a more fulfilling life — and has been doing so since it’s first edition, where it urged the world to ‘wake up’. 

The magazine began in August/November 2013, with #1 — “Freedom”, and since that time New Philosopher has been a regular feature on the coffee table at my local bookstore and I always have a copy in my house. While there’s many great articles, essays and striking graphic design elements in every edition, my favourite sections would have to be the Living Philosophy short interviews and the Our Library feature.

Today happens to be the fourth birthday of the publication, according to its Twitter account, and there’s a few interviews that I’d recommend checking out, as well as subscribing.

Today’s episode is the first revision of the topics on resources involving political philosophy — you can support the 365DaysOfPhilosophy podcast by visitingwww.patreon.com/kyliesturgess and review previous episodes atwww.365daysofphilosophy.com.

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Thomas Hobbes is known for his contributions to analytic philosophy, writings on ethics, and politics — in particular work Leviathan, looking at the state of society in a post-Tudor time. During his life, where rights of divine order, and duties to church and king were being challenged, his works investigated how social control could be maintained through alternative reasons to simple traditional authorities. 

The definition of commonwealth for Hobbes is “one person, of whose acts a great multitude, by mutual covenants one with another, have made themselves every one the author, to the end he may use the strength and means of them all, as he shall think expedient, for their peace and common defence.” He argues that if the world is indeed random, ‘nasty, brutish and [life is] short’, then a social contract should be established to allow for human flourishing; this increased power of the state and law, with an individual’s conscience agreeing to help keep the system together, is the Leviathan — where absolutism is the only rationally defensible form of government.

One of the greatest Italian thinkers is Machiavelli, whose political ideas are covered in a number of books, most famously The Discourses and The Prince. For Machiavelli, freedom and citizenship are intertwined, with internal politics a threat to how much liberty a city could have. Governance depended upon devoted citizens who cultivate wealth and reputation through independence.

His writings to a benevolent ‘prince’ were dedicated to Lorenzo de’ Medici, a nephew of Pope Leo X and the ruler of Florence; The Discourses dedicated to members of the Florentine ruling group. The reputation of a manipulative, politically-savvy politician is an unfortunate one for Machiavelli, as his work promotes a good republican government with practical aims, encouraging thoughtful ruling in often difficult and treacherous societies.