The bones of the foot are arranged to not only provide stability and absorb impact, but to provide maximal efficiency in movement. Beginning with their axes of motion, which are purposefully arranged to allow motion in a specific sequence as the body's weight transfers over the foot from posterior to anterior. The ankle allows dorsiflexion, the subtlalar and mid tarsal joints allow pronation (shock absorption), which  converts to supination (rigid lever), returning motion back to the ankle as plantar flexion. It is a spring-loaded structure. And stability is not just structural - it's dynamic. 

It is crucial to understand that the foot and ankle are merely a system of levers and pulleys. Understanding the anatomic arrangement of the tendons around an axis describes the relative contribution of a muscle (by way of tendons) to the system. The larger the tendon, the more force it can exert. And the farther from the joint axis, the greater the lever arm, also resulting in more force. And when a tendon crosses over a joint axis, we can determine which direction the force will occur. 

Tendons on the lateral side of the ankle will pull the foot into eversion, while tendons on the medial side will invert. Posterior tendons plantar flex, while anterior tendons dorsiflex. However the arrangement becomes more complex when we see tendons crossing multiple axes, and becoming maximally loaded and thus effective at specific points during the gait cycle. Pathology occurs when joint axes shift from ideal, or motion is somehow limited either by physical restriction (tight tendons or boney impingement) or by anatomic malalignment.

Such is the example with a short or elevated first ray, or a first ray with an axis moving away from the traverse plane. The result of inefficiency in the peroneal complex to sufficiently load the medial column will result in prolonged pronation, the downstream effects being hyper mobility, poor shock absorption, distal deformity such as bunions and hammertoes, and load transfer issues like metatarsalgia, stress fractures, and neuromas. 

Thus you can appreciate how biomechanics is the foundation of many of the pathologies we see in foot and ankle medicine. Correcting these deficiencies is essential to surgical practice. 

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

Understanding biomechanics is essential to diagnosing and treating vague symptom descriptions such as metatarsalgia. 

If you remember back to our discussion on pronation and supination - the foot first must pronate when loading then convert into a supinated, rigid lever for propulsion. This occurs when the body weight moves over the center of the foot, tightening posterior structures and placing them into position for maximal effect. When this system works properly, the Achilles tendon raises the hind foot and increases pressure on the forefoot. At the same time, supination is occurring. The peroneus longus tendon begins firing, causing forefoot load to transfer from the lateral forefoot to the first ray, our most important propulsive lever in the forefoot. If an imbalance exists in this chain - for example excessively tight Achilles, poorly functional peroneal complex, or first ray insufficiency due to elevation, shortening or stiffness, then more load occurs for longer in the lesser metatarsals. This sets up a variety of pathological processes, any of which may occur or more than one may happen at the same time. 

Treatment should focus on mechanics first - how did the pathology occur? Functional problems are treated with functional support such as orthotics. Structure comes second. And when a structural concern exists often surgical intervention can be helpful. However surgery just to relieve pain will often fail if it does not address mechanical causes leading to the pain. 

Key takeaways for practitioners:

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

Painful burning, stinging, electrical shocks and possibly numbness in the plantar foot, especially with weight bearing and activity may be tarsal tunnel syndrome. This is an often misdiagnosed condition since the symptoms overlap with many other pathologies. 

Diagnostic testing such as MRI, CT, ultrasound and EMG/NCV studies are not consistently diagnostic, leading to many alternate theories for pain in this region. Many practitioners will often overlook double crush situations where the peripheral nerves are already hypersensitive due to more proximal level compression. Systemic disorders such as diabetes and thyroid disease may also make peripheral nerves more susceptible to compression injuries. 

Careful history and physical exam, and occasionally a diagnostic block are used to confirm the diagnosis and rule out others. 

Treatments are also difficult because there is no consistency in response to any one method. Occasionally surgery is required for pain relief, although expectations for surgical outcome must be guarded. In advanced stages the post-operative prognosis worsens, and patients often will gain some but not complete relief. This is true even if space occupying lesions are the causative factor and can be removed.

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

Key diabetes statistics in the United States: 

Total Prevalence: Approximately 40.1 million people (diagnosed or undiagnosed) have diabetes, about 12% of the US population.

Economic and Health impact: 

Cost: The total estimated cost of diagnosed diabetes in the United States in 2022 was over $412.9 billion.

Diabetes affects all of the major organ systems in the lower extremity. The nervous system, circulatory system, musculoskeletal system, and even the skin. What we see in the foot is a window into what is happening to the body systemically. A diabetic foot wound is not a simple or isolated condition - it reflects advanced disease state, and can be a critical entry point, a big red flag, for more intensive treatment of the underlying condition. 

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

Equinus, or a tight heel cord, is a major contributor to foot pathology. In some cases it is subtle and the body can compensate to the point where it is unnoticeable. However over years the compensatory motion that is "borrowed" from other joints becomes apparent as either pain in areas such as the Achilles insertion or the plantar fascia, or structural changes such as collapse of the arch or bunions. 

Because it is such an influential force across the entire foot, the Achilles tendon is usually examined along with specific pathologies that may be the 'presenting complaint.' Patients are often unaware of the tightness in the heel cord. This is where careful and deliberate clinical evaluation is essential. Treatment of a specific pathology while ignoring the primary causative condition will lead to reoccurrence. 

Calf stretching is part of comprehensive rehabilitation for many foot and ankle conditions. Stretching is best when performed with frequency, repetition and force. Gravity is one way to achieve stretch, but tensioned bands, belts, even a pillowcase can be more effective at helping stretch this strong structure. The benefits of stretching cannot be overemphasized. It is especially important as we age, become less active or mobile.

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

Nerves play a critical role in how we experience pain, balance, and movement. Nerves are two-way messaging electrical conduits that carry signals for motor function from the brain to the periphery, and sensory input, carrying information from the periphery to the brain. When there is a disturbance either mechanically or chemically in the signal pathway, symptoms can emerge. 

Systemic conditions such as diabetes and autoimmune disorders can lead to nerve dysfunction, or peripheral neuropathy. Symptoms of neuropathy may include burning, stinging, compressive pressure, pins and needles, or even combinations of symptoms. Often the presentation will be insidious, developing slowly over time. However the symptoms can become profound and persistent, affecting quality of life. Treatment begins with identifying the underlying cause and if possible treating that condition, with nerve symptoms resolving when the underlying disorder is reversed. In some cases, such as with diabetic neuropathy, there is no reversal as the nerve damage becomes permanent. 

Mechanical compression is another common cause of nerve pain in the foot. Morton's neuroma and tarsal tunnel syndrome are two examples of this. Electrical shock, tingling, and abnormal sensations hallmark these conditions. Generally, pressure relief has beneficial effects. Occasionally the pressure needs to be relieved with surgical means. This involves decompressive surgery. 

In season 2, we will dive deeper into surgical management of nerve conditions and many others. This episode will touch on symptoms and workup. 

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

In this episode of BIPEDAL, we explore one of the most common deformities of the forefoot—hammertoes. These toe deformities affect millions of people and often develop gradually due to biomechanical imbalance in the foot.

A hammertoe occurs when one of the lesser toes—most commonly the second, third, or fourth toe—becomes bent at the middle joint, creating a characteristic hammer-like appearance. Early in the condition the toe may remain flexible, but over time the deformity can become rigid and painful.

We discuss the different types of digital deformities, including:

The episode explains how these deformities develop, focusing on the role of muscle imbalance between the intrinsic and extrinsic muscles of the foot, as well as contributing biomechanical factors such as long second toes, joint instability, structural foot types, and restrictive footwear.

Common symptoms include:

We also review treatment options, beginning with conservative approaches such as footwear modifications, padding, orthotics, and activity changes. These strategies aim to relieve pressure and slow progression of the deformity.

When symptoms persist or the deformity becomes rigid, surgical correction may be considered. Surgical procedures typically focus on realigning the toe, releasing tight tendons, or stabilizing the joint to restore function and relieve pain.

Finally, we discuss recovery and patient expectations following hammertoe surgery. Most patients are able to walk immediately in a protective surgical shoe, with gradual return to normal footwear over several weeks. Swelling can persist for a few months, but long-term outcomes are generally very favorable when the deformity is appropriately corrected.

This episode provides a clear overview of hammertoes—from how they develop to the treatments available—helping listeners better understand a condition that affects a large portion of the population.

Key Takeaways

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

Beginning with early primates more than 50 million years ago, the episode examines how primitive feet functioned primarily as grasping tools for arboreal life, featuring a divergent big toe, long toes, and a flexible midfoot. As environmental changes pushed early hominins toward life on the ground, the foot gradually adapted to support bipedal locomotion.

Key fossil discoveries—including Ardipithecus, Australopithecus, and the famous 3.6-million-year-old Laetoli footprints—provide critical evidence of how early humans began walking upright. Later species such as Homo erectus show the emergence of many modern features of the human foot, including shorter toes, a larger heel bone, and the development of the longitudinal arch.

The episode also explores the biomechanics that make the human foot so efficient, including the windlass mechanism, elastic energy storage within the arch and plantar fascia, and the role of the big toe in propulsion. Together, these adaptations transformed the foot into a structure capable of supporting long-distance walking and endurance running.

Finally, the discussion connects evolutionary design to modern foot pathology, highlighting how conditions such as plantar fasciitis, bunions, and arch dysfunction may represent trade-offs of our specialized bipedal anatomy.

I named the podcast 'Bipedal' since the story of structure origin is fundamental to understanding what can structurally go wrong. 

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

In this episode of BIPEDAL, we take a comprehensive look at arthritis of the foot and ankle, a common condition that can significantly affect mobility and quality of life.  Foot arthritis is actually quite common, particularly in adults over the age of 50, while ankle arthritis is less frequent but often more debilitating when it occurs.

Osteoarthritis is the most common joint disease worldwide, affecting hundreds of millions of people. In the foot alone, imaging studies suggest that roughly one in five adults over 50 show signs of arthritis, although not all cases produce symptoms. Ankle arthritis affects approximately 1% of the population, and unlike hip or knee arthritis, the majority of ankle arthritis cases are post-traumatic, meaning they develop after an injury such as an ankle fracture or severe sprain.

Arthritis typically begins with breakdown of the protective cartilage inside the joint, which normally allows smooth, pain-free movement. As cartilage deteriorates, the joint space narrows and the bones begin to experience increased mechanical stress. Over time this can lead to bone spurs, stiffness, loss of motion, and chronic pain.

There are different causes of arthritis, including:

Common symptoms of foot and ankle arthritis include:

Treatment generally begins with conservative management aimed at reducing pain and improving function. These strategies may include activity modification, supportive footwear, custom orthotics, bracing, anti-inflammatory medications, and occasionally injections to reduce inflammation. When symptoms become severe or conservative treatments fail, surgical options may be considered. These procedures can include joint debridement, realignment procedures, joint fusion, or in certain cases joint replacement, particularly for the ankle.

The episode emphasizes that treatment decisions are individualized and depend on the severity of arthritis, the joints involved, and the patient’s activity level and goals.

Key Takeaways

This episode provides listeners with a clear overview of how arthritis develops in the foot and ankle and the wide range of treatment options available to maintain mobility and quality of life.

For more discussions about foot and ankle health, stay tuned to BIPEDAL.

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.

Approximately 10% of all fractures in the human body occur in the foot and ankle. It is a load bearing, highly stressed region of the body whereby forces are continuously being applied. Move the foot suddenly in the wrong direction, and these forces can overwhelm the ability of the bones to stay intact. However, all injuries resulting in fractures do not have to be the result of sudden movement or significant force. Repeated cyclic stress such as when training or carrying heavy loads may result in a type of fracture pattern as well. 

Understanding the mechanism of injury is crucial in fracture evaluation and management. Because fractures follow patterns, skilled clinical evaluation can determine whether straightforward conservative management is appropriate, or more intensive surgical repair is required. Factors such as patient age, activity level, biologic capacity for healing, and even adequate blood flow all become part of a clinical picture that dictates methods of treatment. 

I am taking a broad look at this type of injury in Season 1 to lay the foundation for future discussions. Next season we will begin to explore more in depth surgical topics including specific fracture scenarios that we treat. 

The content of this podcast is for educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.