California Frontier

Towering over people at 6'7", the imposing figure of Chief Francisco Solano loomed large in early 19th-century California.

Born a Suisun native named Sina, he received the name Francisco Solano at his Mission Dolores baptism in 1810. Solano rose to become a formidable military leader, commanding thousands of indigenous warriors for the Mexican authorities.

His skill in battle and diplomacy was invaluable to General Mariano Vallejo in establishing control over Native groups in Northern California. Solano straddled two worlds - respected by Indians and Californios for both his might and intelligence. Eyewitness accounts paint him as an awe-inspiring warrior.

After Mexican rule ended, Solano faded into legend, with conflicting reports of his final years and resting place. His legacy endures through place names, a towering statue, and the persistent mystique surrounding this titan who bestrode the eras of Spanish, Mexican and American California.

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This episode is dedicated the remarkable life of Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo, a central figure in the pivotal era of California's origins. 

Born into a military family in 1808 Monterey, Vallejo's thirst for knowledge and quick wit allowed him to receive a prestigious education from the governor himself. Vallejo rapidly ascended the military ranks, becoming the powerful commander who established a pueblo and presidio in Sonoma - the northernmost reaches of the territory. Vallejo's exploits included an unlikely friendship with a Native American chieftain that shaped the history of Mexican California. 

When the Bear Flag Revolt sought to overthrow Mexican rule, the charismatic Vallejo charmed the insurgents over a meal before being imprisoned. 

In the new State of California, Vallejo fought tirelessly to preserve the voices and stories of his fellow Californios. He collaborated extensively with esteemed historian H.H. Bancroft, opening doors to gather oral histories. Vallejo's own remarkable memoirs shed light on this captivating era. 

Listen now to dive into the extraordinary life of this trailblazer who left an indelible mark on California history. 

To learn more:

• Recuerdos: Historical and Personal Remembrances Relating to Alta California, 1769–1849
• Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo: Life in Spanish, Mexican, and American California 
• General Vallejo and the Advent of the Americans

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Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo is best known for being the first European to successfully navigate the Pacific coast of what is today California to points north of the San Francisco Bay.

During the voyage, he and his men disembarked at several points and made direct contact with the Native American inhabitants of the coast and Channel Islands.

His and his men's account of their voyage was also the first written description of the West Coast of North America and its peoples.

Episode web page: https://www.californiafrontier.net/juan-rodriguez-cabrillo/

Mentioned in this episode:

Discovering Cabrillo by Harry Kelsey

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In this episode, I give my take on the California Missions Foundation conference that took place on April 12-14.  It was the first in-person conference since 2020, making it an important occasion to reconnect with California history in a special way.

The California Missions Foundation does a huge amount to preserve the physical reminders of California's early past, particularly the missions, ranchos, and presidios. It also supports scholarship into California's native, mission, and rancho history. Each year, the conference is hosted by one of California's 21 missions. This year's conference events took place at two missions: La Purísima in Lompoc for the paper presentations and Mission Santa Inés for the banquet and social gatherings.

In addition to the conference and banquet, private tours were offered of nearby historical sites, such as the mission mills and the mission laundry area at Santa Inés. These tours are often led by experts, like the archaeologists who excavated these sites, providing a behind-the-scenes look into places that regular visitors might not be able to access.

For those interested in early California history, the conference presentations are fascinating. They delve into little-known but intriguing aspects of California's missions, ranchos, presidios, and native peoples. If you want to stay up-to-date on next year's event, make sure and subscribe to the podcast or join our email list at www.californiafrontier.net.

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In Part 2 of my conversation with Dr. Jason Sexton, we delve into Kevin's attempt to understand the "California experience." Kevin Starr tried to chronicle California's history in a nuanced yet idealistic way, which connected him to earlier California historians such as Josiah Royce.

According to Jason, Starr was an open-minded, generous figure who sought to bring people together through his writings that celebrate ordinary Californians. His Catholic faith shaped this vision of California, and his honesty and empathy helped him grapple with darker aspects of the state's history, like the treatment of Native Americans. Along the way, Jason introduces us to Starr's major works, like Endangered Dreams and Embattled Dreams. These books show Starr's literary mastery in capturing California's depth and complexity—the awesome but conflicting stories that make California unique.

Learn more:

• Jason Sexton, Ph.D.
• Jason’s book Redemptive Dreams: Engaging Kevin Starr’s California
• Kevin Starr’s Books on Amazon.com

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This is the first part of a lively conversation with Dr. Jason Sexton, editor of a book on the renowned California historian Kevin Starr (1940-2017).

Sexton describes Starr as California’s most ambitious interpreter. Starr’s 8-volume history, spanning the state’s origins to the 2000s, is the most complete work on California in print.

Kevin Starr grew up in an orphanage and San Francisco’s housing projects. As a young man, he studied at the University of San Francisco before serving in the U.S. Army in Europe. He later went on to earn a doctorate at Harvard University and became a prolific newspaper columnist before dedicating himself to interpreting California history. Through his unique life experience, Starr developed an expansive perspective that embraced the character of both Northern and Southern California.

Jason Sexton, who grew up in the Central Valley town of Tracy, became fascinated by Starr’s vision after reading his works. As a theologian and sociologist, Sexton saw religious dimensions in Starr’s works that he believed needed to be explored. This motivated him to edit a volume that would examine, appreciate and even critique Starr’s approach to the state’s history.

The interview also covers Jason’s unconventional path to academia in the UK before returning to California and how he sees Starr as embodying the “redemptive dreams” of people making history in the fragmented Golden State.

Learn more:

• Jason Sexton, Ph.D.
• Jason’s book Redemptive Dreams: Engaging Kevin Starr’s California
• Kevin Starr’s Books on Amazon.com

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Imagine California today without any remnants of its Spanish and Mexican past. That almost happened until a group of determined women took action to preserve the state's Hispanic heritage. At the turn of the 20th century, the historic El Camino Real trail connecting the California missions was crumbling into disrepair and faced being lost forever.

Enter Anna Pitcher, a civic leader who launched an ambitious plan to designate and mark the ancient route for the automobile age. Joined by leading women's clubs like the General Federation of Women's Clubs, Pitcher and her successors spent decades advocating and physically marking El Camino Real with the now iconic bell markers.

Their efforts were not without opposition, as some saw the missions as odious symbols of colonialism. But the women persisted, mapping El Camino Real and installing bells from San Diego to Sonoma. Their pioneering work preserved an indelible touchstone of California's diverse origins that residents and visitors can still enjoy today.

Learn more:

• Book: California’s El Camino Real and its Historic Bells
• Book: California Vieja: Culture and Memory in a Modern American Place

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The California missions ended after Mexico became independent of Spain. The newly independent Mexican government eventually passed laws that called for an end to the mission system through “secularization.” 

The laws mandated the missions to be turned over to the Native American converts and converted into secular towns, with the land divided among Indian families. However, much of the mission lands and property ended up being granted to Spanish/Mexican settlers instead of the Native Americans. 

By the late 1830s, all 21 California missions had been secularized. Most missions fell into ruin until a movement in the late 19th/early 20th centuries raised funds to restore and preserve them as tourist attractions. After California became part of the U.S., the mission churches were returned to the Catholic Church by Presidents Buchanan and Lincoln. The restored missions along Highway 101 (El Camino Real) drew visitors from around the world, allowing people to experience their history and beauty.

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The episode chronicles the story of Fr. José Altimira, a Spanish Franciscan missionary in early 19th century California. Altimira pushed to establish a new mission north of San Francisco Bay, clashing with his Franciscan superiors; he explored the Sonoma Valley and established a new mission in 1823 with support from Mexican civil authorities. Though the mission was allowed to continue, Altimira's time there was filled with tension.  As the last mission founded under Mexican rule, San Francisco Solano marked the northernmost reach of the California mission chain.

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In this episode, we look at the history of Native American Vaqueros. 

Vaqueros were skilled horsemen who managed cattle and horses. Their tradition probably originates in the horse culture that arrived in Spain from North Africa in the 8th century AD and is widespread in Latin America. 

The mission era brought ranching life to Alta California and created the unique figure of the California vaquero. Franciscan friars had some of the most trusted Native Americans at the missions trained as vaqueros, who excelled at horsemanship. Eventually, Indian vaqueros were a key part of rancho life on the California frontier.

Full text of the podcast

Learn more about Native American Vaqueros:

• Book: Rose Marie Beebe and Robert Senkewicz. Testimonios: Early California through the Eyes of Women, 1815–1848.
• Book: Russell Freedman. In the Days of the Vaqueros: America’s First True Cowboys.
• Book: Jo Mora. Californios: The Saga of the Hard-riding Vaqueros, America’s First Cowboys.
• Book: George Harwood Phillips: Vineyards and Vaqueros: Indian Labor and the Economic Expansion of Southern California, 1771–1877.
• Book: Arnold Rojas. These Were The Vaqueros: Collected Works of Arnold R. Rojas
• Book: Stephen W. Silliman: Lost Laborers in Colonial California: Native Americans and the Archaeology of Rancho Petaluma.
• Book chapter: Lee Panich: “Indigenous Vaqueros in Colonial California” in Foreign Objects: Rethinking Indigenous Consumption in American Archaeology.
• Article: Paul Albert Lacson. “Born of Horses:’ Missionaries, Indigenous Vaqueros, and Ecological Expansion during the Spanish Colonization of California.”

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