Crazy Joe's Psych Notes

Modern Experimental Method:

What is correlation and what does it tell us?

Correlation: a statistical technique for describing the extent and direction of the relationship between pairs of scores on some measure. , does not indiact what causes what

What can psychological experiments tell us?

Experiments, which is psychology’s most powerful tool, assesses cause and effect through strictly controlled procedures and manipulations.

Experiment: a careful and controlled study of cause and effect through manipulation of the conditions participants are exposed to.

Internal Validity: the extent to which an experiment permits statements about cause and effect.

External Validity: the extent to which an experiment applies to real-life behavior.

STUDY CHART

Methods Used in Psychological Research

Observation: a research method in which events are observed and recorded as they occur; with out intervention.

Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in everyday settings or in a laboratory; the observer attempts to be as inconspicuous as possible.

Participant observation: Taking an active part in a social situation and observing the behavior of others in that situation.

Interview: a research method in which clients or research participants are questioned about their life experiences and their ideas and feelings about them.

Case history: a compilation of significant experiences in a person’s life.

Questionnaire: a set of written questions that each participant answers in the same order.

Survey: a research method in which a questionnaire is administered to a large number of people in a short period of time.

Standardized test: a test that has been developed to assess human abilities, achievements, and traits. (such as personality characteristics)

Physiological measures: methods for measuring any form of physiological functioning that is related to behavior.

Correlation: a mathematical way of determining the relationship between two pairs of scores.

Experiment: a careful and controlled study of cause and effect in which participants or subjects are exposed to differing conditions (independent variable) and any corresponding differences in behavior (dependent variable) are assessed; experiments may be conducted in a laboratory (controlled observation) or naturalistic settings.

For more info on this topic visit http://psy101.MyUCCedu.com

Understanding Research is the second program in the DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY series. This program examines how we know what we know. Youll explore the scientific method, the distinction between fact and theory, and the different ways in which data are collected and applied, both in labs and in real-world settings.

Research often begins with a question. Traditionally, answers have been found in lab experiments, surveys, test groups, and interviews.

This program provides an example of research in a field setting. Psychologist Dr. Christina Maslach of the University of California at Berkeley studies job burnout, what causes it, and what can be done to prevent it. Instead of using traditional lab settings, Dr. Maslach conducts her research where the burnout is happening, in the workplace, using a real-world setting as a lab.

By taking this fly-on-the-wall approach, Dr. Maslach studies stress as it occurs, relying on subjects live experiences rather than just their memories or perceptions of past experiences. In this case, she has developed a scale to measure job burnout and a scale to measure the health of the workplace environment. Scientific methods to ensure accuracy are part of her approach. She collects data from carefully controlled measurements and observations, and the research process is methodical. The experiment can then be reproduced and the data tested by other researchers. By sharing data through publishing results, psychologists provide new understandings and new tools, as well as fodder for new questions and debates.

Through this consistent, long-term work, Dr. Maslachs research has shed light not only on individual employees behavior, but also on the behavior of an entire organization. The application of this research helps individuals develop mechanisms for coping with stress, and assists organizations in evaluating the health and effectiveness of the workplace.

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Post Video 3: "Learning", Discovering Psychology Discussion of Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning.

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Combining a remarkable intellect with penetrating insight, and what might best be described as astonishing literary talent, Sigmund Freud approached the study of human personality with fresh new insights, and the skills of an extremely well trained researcher. Freud pioneered the study of the human personality, and founded the modern specialty of personality psychology. Throughout his career, Freud sought to identify and trace the roots of personality, and to define the intricate relationship, and often-delicate balance between mental structures, personality components, societal pressures, and overt behavior.

Sigmund Freud was born in 1856, the son of an unsuccessful wool merchant, in the small catholic town of Freiberg Austria, the north of Vienna, province of Moravia (then part of the Hungary Empire, now The Czech Republic). He was one of eight children, including two older half brothers from his fathers first marriage, the first born of his mother, Emilie (Sigmund was her favorite) and she expected great things of him, third son to his father Jacob, recognized young Sigmund’s intellectual potential and encouraged him in his early academic inclinations.

His mother gave little Sigmund the only reading lamp in the house, to put in his room. Sigmund’s mother would not allow his brothers and sisters to disturb him when he was reading or studying. His father, Jacob, was a strict, authority figure, and was somewhat detached. Although Sigmund excelled in school, he experienced some emotional upheaval as well as episodes of depression. (These difficulties may have motivated him to later search for the mechanisms that prompt emotional problems and personality difficulties.)

In 1873, Freud entered the University of Vienna medical school, with the intentions of becoming a medical researcher, rather then practice medicine. He eventually specialized in Neurology, and intended to become an “academician” (a member of an academy or society concerned with the arts or sciences), as evidence of this Freud published five major studies by the time he was 26. In one of these studies, Freud discovered the anesthetic properties of cocaine during surgery, but missed fame when a colleague took credit for the discovery before him. While at the University of Vienna medical school, Freud was greatly influenced by his Professor Ernst Brucke, who had developed theories of behavioral and Psychological processes, and he continued studying with him after earning his medical degree. Freud came to the realization, that because of discrimination, opportunities for faculty appointments, as a medical researcher, and advancement in academia, were severely restricted for Jews at that time, and was compelled to enter the practice of medicine. He took the advice of Dr. Brucke and entered private practice as a clinical neurologist, and was soon able to marry his fiancée of four years, Martha Bernays.

Freud, with his new career goal in mind, traveled to Paris, France, to study for a year with Jean-Martin Charcot, well known for his skill in treating nervous disorders. Charcot expertise was in the use of hypnosis, and his role as one of the founders of the “new” specialty of psychiatry.

Freud learned the use of hypnosis as a treatment method, but soon became dissatisfied with this technique for treatment of patients with “hysteria”.

Eventually, Freud began to work with an older Viennese colleague, Jozef Breuer, who had accidentally begun using a “talking cure” with such patients (which would later become the technique of “free association”) in an attempt to trace the origin of “neurotic symptoms”.

Freud was impressed by Breuer’s discovery that a patient, who recalled her earlier traumatic event, was relieved of her symptoms when the treatment session was ended.

Freud and Breuer collaborated and coauthored a book in 1895, entitled Studies on Hysteria. The two men ultimately parted over a disagreement concerning the importance of sexual factors as the cause of hysteria, and in 1896, Freud wrote his now famous paper, “Project for the Development of a Scientific Psychology.”

Freud began to practice on his own in both neurology and psychiatry, using free association techniques in the treatment of a variety of “psychiatric” patients suffering from psychological disturbances that produced both psychological as well as physical symptoms (without any apparent underlying physiological causes.)

Like other physicians of his day, Freud looked for physical causes of psychiatric problems. As a neurologist he knew that damage to the brain or nervous system could cause individuals to behave in strange ways, including physical symptoms such as loss of sensation (anesthesia), loss of motion (paralysis), and emotional symptoms such as anxiety and depression.

For a number of patients, however, no physical causes could be found, and many of Freud’s colleagues were of the opinion that such patients were faking their symptoms.

In France, however, some psychiatrists were treating patients with “hypnosis“, although mainstream medicine considered it quackery. Freud, however, had observed Charcot induce psychiatric symptoms in patients through the use of hypnosis.

The evidence of hypnosis converted Freud from the “medical model” of psychiatric disorders to a psychological model (i.e. “Psychodynamics” [i.e. becoming convinced that powerful unconscious forces have the power to influence behavior, and the functioning of the body]).

The impact of unconscious forces on the body can produce the physical symptoms of paralysis, blindness, mutism, deafness, and other maladies, which resembles physical disease, but which occur in physically normal bodies, with undamaged nervous systems.

Later, Freud began asking his patients to relate their dreams during their treatment sessions. From insights gained during these treatment sessions, he formulated a system of interpreting dream symbolism, which he presented in his first book in 1900, the Interpretation of Dreams, which he considered his most original and important work.

During this period of time, Freud developed new ways of thinking about mental and emotional disorders, and formulated the theory and methods of psychoanalysis (which he believed to be a new science), and the first technique of psychotherapy.

Freud eventually turned away from neurology, which was based on a physical model of human behavior and founded his new science based on psychological or mental causes.

For more info on this topic visit http://psy101.MyUCCedu.com

Development of the Libido

Freud termed the psychic (instinctual) energy needs associated with various regions of the body (erogenous zones), the Libido. The libido represents a combination of the major life (”Eros“) instincts which become invested in specific objects in the environment (object Cathexis). A particular type of “libidinal gratification” may come to assume a prominent role in an individual’s life. If the development of the child is normal and healthy, then the developing libido progresses in an orderly, predictable sequence, and investments and attachments undergo predictable changes. Initially, libidinal energy is centered on autocratic pleasure seeking, including stimulation of the mouth, followed by anal pleasures, and subsequently followed by autoerotic stimulation of the genital region.

Gradually the libido then becomes invested in preferred objects and other people. With further development, the libido becomes invested in forming attachments to playmates, then friends of the same sex, that a “best friend” or pal. With the maturation of the developing personality, the libido later becomes invested in heterosexual attraction, and the expression of the desire for love and intimacy with a person of the opposite sex. The fully mature individual possesses all of the previously mentioned libidinal investments and attachments, but in a well balanced manner. If fixation occurs, however, it may cause the libidinal energy to become inordinately focused (fixated) on one of the developmental levels. Upon arrival at heterosexual maturity, one might be expected to be in love with their spouse, enjoy at night out with friends, enjoy constructive pastimes, recreation, enjoy productive work, and maintain a degree of self-love which enables them to enjoy their own thoughts, emotions, activities and their own company.

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Stage 1: The Oral Stage, Birth - 18 months (approx.)

Physical focus: mouth, lips tongue (sucking). Sucking is the primary source of pleasure for a newborn. Everything goes in the mouth. Sucking = food.

Psychological theme: dependency. A baby is very dependent and can do little for itself. If babies needs properly fulfilled can move onto the next stage. But if not fulfilled baby will be mistrustful or over-fulfilled baby will find it hard to cope with a world that doesn’t meet all of his/her demands.

Adult character: highly dependent/highly independent. If baby becomes fixated at this stage Freud felt that he or she would grow to be an oral character. Mostly these people are extremely dependent and passive people who want everything done for them. However Freud also suggests that another type of oral character is the person who is highly independent and that when under stress the orally fixated person may flip from one type to the other. This exemplifies Freud’s doctrine of opposites.

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Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital

A newborn baby, according to Freud, is bubbling with energy (libido; psychic energy). However, this energy is without focus or direction, which would not allow for survival. How, then, does the child develop the ability to control and direct his/her energy?

Psychic energy is an important concept in Freudian psychology. The structure of the mind and development all revolve around how the individual attempts to deal with psychic energy. Raw libinal impulses provide the basic fuel that the mind runs on. But the vehicle (mind) needs to well-formed and well-tuned in order to get maximum energy.

In order to understand development (and neuroses), then, we should “follow the energy” and see where it goes. As with physical energy, psychic energy cannot be created or destroyed in a big picture sense, however it may be dealt with in non-obvious ways.

So, where does the infant’s, then the child’s, the adolescent’s, and adult’s energy get focused? Freud believed that as development occurs the baby begins to focus on first one object then another. As the infant’s focus shifts the style and type of gratification being sought changes.

The focal objects for the developing child’s energy serves to define five main stages of psychological development:

1. oral (0-18 months)

2. anal (18 months - 3 1/2 years)

3. phallic (3 1/2 years - 6 years)

4. latency (6 years - puberty)

5. genital (puberty - adulthood)

Each psychosexual stage has three main parts:

1. A physical focus:

Where the child’s energy is concentrated and their gratification obtained.

2. A psychological theme:

This is related to both the physical focus and the demands being made on the child by the outside world as he/she develops. For each stage, there can be two extremes in psychological reaction - either doing too much or not enough of what is ideal.

3. An adult character type:

In the first three stages this adult character type is one that is related to being fixated or stuck at that stage. If a person doesn’t resolve the psychological issues that arise at that stage they will always have problems relating to those issues.

Stage 1: The Oral Stage, Birth - 18 months (approx.)

Physical focus: mouth, lips tongue (sucking). Sucking is the primary source of pleasure for a newborn. Everything goes in the mouth. Sucking = food.

Psychological theme: dependency. A baby is very dependent and can do little for itself. If babies needs properly fulfilled can move onto the next stage. But if not fulfilled baby will be mistrustful or over-fulfilled baby will find it hard to cope with a world that doesn’t meet all of his/her demands.

Adult character: highly dependent/highly independent. If baby becomes fixated at this stage Freud felt that he or she would grow to be an oral character. Mostly these people are extremely dependent and passive people who want everything done for them. However Freud also suggests that another type of oral character is the person who is highly independent and that when under stress the orally fixated person may flip from one type to the other. This exemplifies Freud’s doctrine of opposites.

Stage 2: Anal Stage, 18 months - 3.5 years (approx.)

Physical focus: anus (elimination). Until now the baby has had it pretty easy. Now baby is supposed to control bowels. Freud believed baby’s sexual pleasure centered around the anus at this time.

Psychological theme: self-control/obedience. These things are not just related to toilet training but also the baby must learn to control urges and behaviors (terrible twos). What goes wrong here is either parents being too controlling or not controlling enough (Freud was a great believer in moderation).

Adult character: anally retentive (rigid, overly organized, subservient to authority) vs. anally expulsive (little self-control, disorganized, defiant, hostile).

Stage 3: Phallic Stage, 3.5 - 6 years (approx.)

Physical focus: penis. Freud believed that boys and girls both focussed on the penis. Boys: why hasn’t she got one? Girls: why haven’t I got one? Children become particularly interested in playing with their genitals at this stage.

Psychological theme: morality and sexuality identification and figuring out what it means to be a girl/boy. Children, according to Freud have sexual feelings for the opposite sexed parent at this stage (and deal with Oedipus / Electra complexes - basically erotic attachment to parent of opposite sex, but since these feelings are not socially acceptable, it may become hostility) and feel some hostility to same-sex parent. Boys experience castration anxiety and girls suffer penis envy. During this time emotional conflicts are resolved by eventually identifying with the same sex parent

Adult character: promiscuous and amoral/ asexual and puritanical (Doctrine of opposites again)

Stage 4: Latency Stage, 6 years to puberty –> (approx.)

The latency stage is the period of relative calm. The sexual and aggressive drives are less active and there is little in the way of psychosexual conflict.

Stage 5: Genital Stage, post puberty

Physical focus: genitals

Psychological theme: maturity and creation and enhancement of life. So this is not just about creating new life (reproduction) but also about intellectual and artistic creativity. The task is to learn how to add something constructive to life and society.

Adult character: The genital character is not fixed at an earlier stage. This is the person who has worked it all out. This person is psychologically well-adjusted and balanced. According to Freud to achieve this state you need to have a balance of both love and work.

For more info on this topic visit http://psy101.MyUCCedu.com

Stage 4: Latency Stage, 6 years to puberty –> (approx.)

The latency stage is the period of relative calm. The sexual and aggressive drives are less active and there is little in the way of psychosexual conflict.

Stage 5: Genital Stage, post puberty

Physical focus: genitals

Psychological theme: maturity and creation and enhancement of life. So this is not just about creating new life (reproduction) but also about intellectual and artistic creativity. The task is to learn how to add something constructive to life and society.

Adult character: The genital character is not fixed at an earlier stage. This is the person who has worked it all out. This person is psychologically well-adjusted and balanced. According to Freud to achieve this state you need to have a balance of both love and work.

For more info on this topic visit http://psy101.MyUCCedu.com

What are defense mechanisms?

Defense mechanisms are the unconscious psychological processes that people develop to relieve anxiety.

What are the most common defense mechanisms?

Among questionable forms of coping are the defense mechanism described by Freud. These are unconscious psychological processes, mental of symbolic, developed to relieve anxiety. They include the following:

Common Defense Mechanisms (12 of 25)

Repression: (The Primary Mechanism):

The person tries to banish offending desires from conscious thought to the point of being totally unaware of the original desires.

(Keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious)

Ex. A traumatized soldier has no recollection of the details of a close brush with death.

Rationalization: The person attempts to deal with a stressful situation by claiming that the stressor was of minimal importance and may even have had beneficial effects.

(Creating false but plausible excuses to justify unacceptable behavior)

Ex. a student who cheats on an exam may rationalize the action with the claim that everybody cheats, which makes cheating easier to accept.

Sublimation: The person unconsciously transforms conflict and anxiety into different but related desire that is more acceptable to society and to him/her self.

Identification: The person attempts to take on the virtues of an admired person.

(Bolstering self-esteem by forming an imaginary or real alliance with some person or group)

Ex. An insecure young man joins a fraternity to boost his self-esteem.

Reaction Formation: The person pretends to possess desires that are the opposite if the desires that are causing conflict and anxiety. (Behaving in a way that is exactly the opposite of one’s true feelings)

Ex. A parent who unconsciously resents a child spoils the child with outlandish gifts.

Projection: The person attributes to others the desires or thoughts that have caused personal conflict. (attributing one’s own thoughts, feelings, or motives to another)

Ex. A person who does not want to recognize his/her inadequate tennis skills blames all bad shots on a flawed racquet.

Denial: The person attempts to dispel anxiety by refusing altogether to accept reality.

For more info on this topic visit http://psy101.MyUCCedu.com

For more info on this topic visit http://psy101.MyUCCedu.com