Historical Snapshots

Anna Stein took her first breath on a makeshift bed in a crowded Warsaw Ghetto apartment in 1940. At the time, not even a year had passed since the Nazis took over Poland and mandated all Warsaw Jewish people to live within a small neighborhood confined by ten-foot walls. The Warsaw Ghetto, as it would come to be known. A space slightly more than a square mile that nearly half a million Jewish people called home.

Anna's mother came into the ghetto pregnant. It had been an accident, though a welcome one in her eyes. Another child is always a blessing was her perspective. Some people, however, encouraged her to have an abortion. "Absolutely not," she would curtly reply, glaring at anyone with the gall to offer such advice. But she worried when alone; ghetto pregnancy realities atop her mind as she watched people dying from disease and hunger and wondered if this was the world to bring a child into.

Her mother did go through with the pregnancy, and Anna became the eighth person in the small two-bedroom apartment. The others took her in with some trepidation and hesitant joy. Worries were not in shortage in ghetto life.

But Anna's mother had a plan. Unbeknownst to all except her husband, Anna's mother worked in the resistance. With life becoming increasingly challenging and rumors beginning of deportations to concentration camps, she looked at her baby and decided that since young children were easiest to smuggle out of the ghetto, she would do just that. She worked with fellow resistance collaborators to put a plan in place.

Shortly after Anna turned four weeks old, a gentle-looking nurse with snow-white hair and many wrinkles took Anna from her mother's arms. That would be the last time mother and daughter saw each other.

The gentle-looking nurse carried Anna out of the ghetto in a large purse and brought her to the home of a young couple. Anna Stein became Maria Sendler.

It was 1959 when Anna learned about her roots. "We have something to talk to you about, Maria," said Anna's father after the family of three finished dinner on a quiet Sunday evening. To Anna, she heard the words as blurry, bubbled thoughts. "We're not your birth parents…you were born to a Jewish family in the Warsaw Ghetto…your birth name was Anna, family name Stein…most of your family died in the Holocaust…but you have an older sister who people say survived…we think her name is Inna, but we don't know where she is…people say that she's likely in Israel."

"We know how difficult hearing this must be for you," her mother continued. We'll secure all the necessary visas and arrange travel for us all to Israel. We want to try finding your sister together."

Anna knew nothing of Israel and didn't care of it in the moment. Her entire identity had just been washed away.

"Why didn't you tell me sooner?" she practically shouted.

"We didn't know how to. Or even if it was best to."

"How did I even get here?"

"We were part of the resistance, helping Jewish people and fighting the Nazis. Your mother wanted to save you since at the time you were the child with the best chance of being smuggled out of the ghetto to safety during the Holocaust."

Anna had wondered why she had brown eyes and curly brown hair while her parents were both blue-eyed and blond. She hadn't thought much of it, something to laugh about, as they sometimes did. Now, it made sense.

"I want to be alone," Anna said and went to her room, where she sat on her bed looking out the window at what had once been the Warsaw ghetto. How ironic, she thought. She also thought about her birth mom and father, their bravery, and all the horrors. She thought about her adoptive parents, the sacrifices they had made, and their enduring love for her.

She didn't sleep that night and refused to go to school the next day. Her parents obliged. As the conversation ended, she looked at her parents and said, "I love you. Thank you for what you did."

A few months later, the family took a bus, then a train, and two plane rides later, they arrived in Tel Aviv, Israel. Anna felt an unexpected sensation as they deplaned into fresh Israeli sunshine and warm air: this is home.

A gregarious, jovial man with a bald head and a thick grey beard served as their taxi driver from the airport. He had come to Israel after the Holocaust. "The Nazis killed my whole family. Nothing was left for me in Europe," he told them. "Now, this is home. So many Jewish people came here after the war, starved and broken. Now we have a home that's ours and a purpose," he continued. "I fought in the Independence War, fought again in the war in '56. Life is difficult here, but I also get to start my day with a swim in the Mediterranean."

The family listened to his stories some but couldn't help their distraction, thinking of how to find Anna's sister or if they would even be able to. Anna felt certain: "She must be here," she kept saying.

For weeks, they searched for Anna's sister without success. There was no record of an Inna Stein, and all the people the family spoke with didn't know of her. As they approached the end of their time in Israel, they went to dinner at a new friend's home, someone a friend from Poland introduced them to. They brought a bottle of wine for the dinner.

As they sat down to eat, the new friend said, "I'm sorry, I don't drink wine. I don't have a wine bottle opener. But go knock on a neighbor's door. Someone should have one."

"That won't be odd?" replied Anna.

"Not at all, dear. We borrow from each other all the time. Come with me, we'll do it together."

No one answered at the first door. At the second door, a woman in her late twenties opened. "Shalom." Anna nearly fainted as she looked at the woman standing before her. They had the same curly black hair, soft face, and even similar mannerisms; Anna saw it in how the woman smiled. It was like looking in a mirror. She knew immediately that this was her sister. The woman in the doorway now had a curious look in her eyes as well.

"Are you Inna Stein?" Anna blurted out.

"It cannot be," the woman replied, her eyes swelling. "I'm not anymore. But I used to be."

Note: “Anna & Her Sister” is a historical fiction snapshot. While based on real events, the story, characters, and incidents are fictitious.

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She was an enormous talent who could sing with the best. One could argue that she was the best.

Sissieretta Jones, or Madame Jones as she liked to be called, captivated audiences with her beautiful and pleasing voice. And in a time when black performers tended to entertain black audiences, she sang to everyone, including U.S. President Benjamin Harrison and his family and friends. That performance took place when Sissieretta was in her mid-20s. She would perform for President Harrison again and sing for the next three U.S. presidents as well. Sissieretta even graced stages of concert halls worldwide, including a memorable performance for the British Royal family.

Born as Mathilda Sissieretta Joyner in Portsmouth, Virginia, in 1868, Sissieretta's parents were part of a growing middle-class black community. Not much is known about her upbringing, but after the deaths of her younger siblings, her family moved to Providence, Rhode Island.

It was here in Providence that Sissieretta began to sing, likely inspired by her mother, a singer and pianist. At fifteen, Sissieretta enrolled at the Academy of Music, though her music life was put on hold when she married and had a child, Mabel, around the same time. Sadly, less than two years later, Mabel passed away in 1886. At this point, Sissieretta dedicated herself to music, likely as part of coping with the loss of her child.

After Mabel's death, Sissieretta moved to Boston and enrolled in vocal training at a Conservatorium, though it isn't clear which one it was. Her career performing began soon after.

Before turning twenty, Sissieretta performed at Boston's Music Hall to a crowd of five thousand, where her singing quickly garnered praise. One review noted, "She kept the audience spell-bound…and was received with rapture…She is unmistakably entitled to the lavish praise she so justly deserves." Another reviewer wrote, "It is difficult to do her justice without incurring a suspicion of being betrayed into exaggeration…Madame JONES' voice is of great compass, and combined strength and sweetness, and she articulated every word distinctly; she is one of those rare singers whom one can listen to without the idea of ever getting satiated."

Sissieretta's career soared as she became the highest-paid black singer of her time while earning universal acclaim. She showed that despite the numerous challenges created by racial barriers of her time, talent and hard work could transcend obstacles.

In 1915, she retired to care for her sick mother but continued to sing and perform in church until passing away in 1933.

Sources:

* Graziano, John. “The Early Life and Career of the ‘Black Patti’: The Odyssey of an African American Singer in the Late Nineteenth Century.” Journal of the American Musicological Society, vol. 53, no. 3, 2000, pp. 543–96. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/831938. Accessed 10 Jun. 2024.

* Sissieretta Jones photograph taken by Napoleon Sarony, circa 1895 - National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, NPG.2009.37 

* “Sissieretta Jones (1868-1933).” The Black Perspective in Music, vol. 4, no. 2, 1976, pp. 191–201. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1214508. Accessed 10 Jun. 2024.

* “Sissieretta Jones: The Black Patti—From the Carnegie Hall Archives.” Carnegie Hall,

* “The Black opera singer who lit the 19th century on fire.” Rhode Island PBS,

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It is desirable to paint a pure picture of a man as special in history as Robert Gould Shaw. He deserves that for the sacrifices he made during the U.S. Civil War. Yet, part of life is growing and recognizing misshaped or uninformed perspectives. Robert did just that, and that, too, is a part of his story.

Robert was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on October 10, 1837, into a wealthy and prominent abolitionist family. Despite the views of his parents, a passion for abolition did not mark Robert's early years. He even wrote at one point, "I don't want to become reformer, Apostle, or anything of that kind." And despite his family's great wealth, he did not seem to have much motivation to become a business success like his grandfathers, who first achieved the family fortune in trade. Robert was more interested in enjoying life. "I have no taste for anything excepting amusing myself!" Robert wrote to his mother when he was sixteen while living in Germany for school in a home paid for by his parents.

One can certainly interpret Robert as a spoiled teenager enjoying life using his parents' wealth. He did do that. At the same time, he worked hard at his studies, loved literature and music, had a wanderlust that led him to see many parts of Europe and was popular among his peers. He was also close to his family, writing them often and missing them dearly when apart. And as a teenage boy, he had typical struggles, particularly with his height - he stood 5 feet 5 inches tall but felt distressed at not growing more.

After graduating from high school in Europe, Robert returned to the U.S. to begin studies at Harvard. The school, however, turned out to be a bad fit, as in one of the great ironies of his life given his future Army fame, Robert abhorred discipline and authority. Harvard stressed both, unlike the more lax environment of Robert's European schooling. As a result, Robert did poorly in his coursework and eventually dropped out, joining his uncles in their firm in New York City in 1859. While he enjoyed the work at first and looked forward to opportunities in the future, Robert soon became dissatisfied, writing to a friend, "I am a slave now."

When the Civil War broke out in 1861, Robert enlisted in the 7th New York Militia and later transferred to the 2nd Massachusetts Infantry. After years of looking for purpose and fulfillment, Robert found both in the army. He developed a reputation for bravery and competence in battle and grew as a soldier through scares, such as a battle in 1862 in which Robert's pocket watch deflected a bullet that could have seriously wounded him. He even changed his perspective on discipline, writing, "Discipline is wonderful."

In 1863, the Governor of Massachusetts selected Robert to command the 54th Massachusetts Infantry, the first all-black Union Army regiment. Robert was hesitant to take the role, as he felt unsure about leading black soldiers, the significant scrutiny of such a position, and the likelihood of success. His initial response was to reject the position. What made him change his mind isn't clear. But he wrote to his fiancee upon the rejection, "Mother will think I am shirking my duty." Shortly after he accepted the command and wrote his fiancee,

"It is needless for me to overwhelm you with a quantity of arguments in favour of the negro troops; because you are with Mother, the warmest advocate the cause can have. I am inclined to think that the undertaking will not meet with so much opposition as was at first supposed. All sensible men in the army, of all parties, after a little thought, say that it is the best thing that can be done; and surely those at home, who are not brave or patriotic enough to enlist, should not ridicule, or throw obstacles in the way of men who are going to fight for them. There is a great prejudice against it; but now that it has become a government matter, that will probably wear away. At any rate, I shan't be frightened out of it by its unpopularity; and I hope you won't care if it is made fun of."

Robert faced immense challenges as leader of the 54th Massachusetts. The men under his command were eager to prove their worth, but they were often treated with skepticism and outright racism by other Union soldiers and officers. Robert himself had some doubts at the outset. However, his attitude quickly changed as he got to know his soldiers and witnessed their dedication and courage.

One significant turning point occurred when Robert staunchly advocated for equal pay for his men. Initially, the Union Army promised black soldiers the same pay as white soldiers. However, the black soldiers received less. Robert passionately fought against this, refusing his own pay in solidarity with his men until the issue was resolved. Which it was. This solidarity earned him respect from his regiment.

Under his leadership, the 54th Massachusetts would be essential in the Union Army's assault on Fort Wagner in South Carolina. In this battle, Robert's leadership and bravery inspired many. As the regiment came under heavy fire, Robert moved to the front, yelling, "Forward 54th!" He led his men until he was shot and killed during the battle.

The Confederate Army buried Robert in a mass grave with his men, a gesture intended to demean him. Instead, it became a powerful symbol of his solidarity with his troops. There is little doubt that he would have wanted to be buried any other way.

In his last letter, written to his father on the day he was killed, Robert said, "We hear nothing but praise of the Fifty-fourth on all hands."

Sources (footnotes for quotes below):

* "COL Robert Gould Shaw." On Point, vol. 10, no. 1, 2004, pp. 15–15. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44610474. Accessed 7 Jun. 2024.

* “Robert Gould Shaw.” Fordham University, Office of the President, https://www.fordham.edu/about/leadership-and-administration/administrative-offices/office-of-the-president/about/hall-of-honor/robert-gould-shaw/

* “Robert Gould Shaw.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Gould_Shaw

* Robt. G. Shaw / Whipple, 96 Washington Street, Boston. Photograph. Retrieved from the Library of Congress, <www.loc.gov/item/2010647752/>.

* Shaw, Robert Gould. Blue-eyed child of fortune: the Civil War letters of Colonel Robert Gould Shaw. Athens, University of Georgia Press, 1992. (Internet Archive)

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John Mercer Langston was born to a mixed-race couple in 1829, a time when interracial relationships were highly taboo and often illegal. His father, Ralph Quarles, was a white plantation owner who held enslaved people, including John's mother, Lucy Langston. Despite the prevailing social norms, Ralph held a progressive view for the time, believing in the education and eventual emancipation of those he enslaved. This philosophy led him to free Lucy in the early 1800s, making it possible for John to be born free, providing John a unique start in life amidst the harsh realities of life for southern black Americans.

While John only had a few years with his parents, as they both passed away when he was four years old, he spoke kindly of them and their relationship. They never married, as the laws forbade doing so. But they had four children together.

After their passing, John spent his youth living in different homes. He experienced much kindness and warmth, with many life lessons coming from the experience. In one home, before even his teen years, he learned the habits of hard work and discipline, which John described as an essential experience that prepared him for life challenges. In that home, the" idea of the highest style of boyhood was realized, when it could be said of one that he was a good worker," John would say.

After attending Oberlin for college and growing into adulthood, John began thinking of a career. He decided to become a lawyer. However, his aspiration was met with resistance as racial prejudice in higher education was rampant, and many law schools refused to admit him solely based on his race.  

"Students would not feel at home with him, and he would not feel at home with them," one told him.

Feedback from another was, "I will let you edge your way into my school." To which John replied, "What, Mr. Fowler, do you mean by your words 'Edge your way into the school?'" The response: "Come into the recitation-room; take your seat off and apart from the class; ask no questions; behave yourself quietly; and if after a time no one says anything against, but all seem well inclined toward you, you may move up nearer the class; and so continue to do till you are taken and considered in due time as in full and regular membership." John declined.

Instead, John began coursework in theology at Oberlin after getting advice from previous professors who told him that the studies would be good for his soul and help with legal training. Three years later, John graduated as the first black theological graduate in the U.S.

Described in these years as "a rather slim, handsome and elegant young man," John settled in Oberlin, where he became an important part of the community. He became an accomplished attorney, never afraid of taking on a challenge. In one case, he chose to defend Edmonia Lewis. Edmonia, a Black and Native American woman who would become a famous sculptor, was accused of poisoning two friends during her college years at Oberlin. She was found not guilty with John's defense.  

Along with his attorney work, John actively participated in politics, beginning with his election as a town clerk in Oberlin. This marked a significant achievement as one of the first black Americans to hold public office in the U.S. After this role, John became a member of the board of education. These were the beginnings of political work that continued throughout his life. In later years, John was appointed Minister to Haiti. After that, he was elected as a congressman representing Virginia.

When he was not working in politics, John also had a career in education. He was President of Virginia Normal and Collegiate Institute. And later, he became a law professor at Howard University, Dean of the Law School, and Vice President of the university.

John advocated for equal rights in all his work. He challenged norms, creating new opportunities. After a long career, John passed away in 1897.

Sources:

* Blodgett, Geoffrey. “John Mercer Langston and the Case of Edmonia Lewis: Oberlin, 1862.” The Journal of Negro History, vol. 53, no. 3, 1968, pp. 201–18. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2716216. Accessed 3 Mar. 2023.

* Bloomfield, Maxwell. “John Mercer Langston and the Rise of Howard Law School.” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C., vol. 71/72, 1971, pp. 421–38. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40067784. Accessed 25 Jan. 2023.

* "John Mercer Langston." Negro History Bulletin, vol. 5, no. 4, 1942, pp. 93–93. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44246678. Accessed 26 Feb. 2023.

* Langston, John Mercer. From the Virginia Plantation to the National Capitol; Or, The First and Only Negro Representative in Congress from the Old Dominion. United States, American Publishing Company, 1894.

* Prof. John Langston, Howard University. [Between 1860 and 1875] Photograph. Retrieved from the Library of Congress, <www.loc.gov/item/2017894214/>.

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Isadora Duncan, often hailed as the "Mother of Modern Dance," revolutionized the art form with her free-spirited and expressive style. She became a pivotal figure in the dance world, breaking away from traditional ballet and laying the groundwork for modern dance.

"Before I was born my mother was in great agony of spirit and in a tragic situation. She could take no food except iced oysters and iced champagne. If people ask me when I began to dance I reply, 'In my mother's womb, probably as a result of the oysters and champagne — the food of Aphrodite.'" - Isadora Duncan

Music became a part of Isadora's life at a young age. Her mother, a music teacher, would play for hours at night. And it was here in the evenings, in a home in San Francisco around the early 1880s, that Isadora began to dance, using her mother's piano as a stage. By her teen years, this evening joy became work, as Isadora dropped out of school to teach wealthy San Franciscans.

During this era, dancing was usually either the waltz or pirouetting. Neither appealed to Isadora. For her, dance was a free-flowing movement without restrictions and corsets. It was about expression. "I have always believed that art should be free from rules and regulations, and that the dancer should be guided by the impulses of the soul," she would say. She rejected being called a dancer. Instead, she went by the title of "artiste."

But there was a dance philosophy for Isadora that was greater than self. Isadora believed that changing your outward behavior could improve your inner being. That character and personality were malleable. She conceived dance not as mere entertainment but as a means of social betterment.

Her philosophy and talent led to a career that took Isadora worldwide, performing in her signature look: barefoot and dressed in flowing garments. She drew large audiences to whom she was a splendor, a delight for those seeking freedom and social change. She embodied their desires for more optimism and a life free from suffocating social rules. Her performances offered this sense of liberation. One admirer remarked, "She was an event not only in art, but in the history of life."

Despite bringing joy to many, Isadora herself experienced significant personal tragedies. Two of her children died in a car accident in 1913, another child shortly after birth, and her husband physically abused her. But through the struggles, Isadora danced and taught dancing worldwide throughout her life. Dance was her love.

Reflecting on her impact, Isadora once said, "I freed women from corsets." Isadora passed away in 1927 at the age of fifty, leaving behind a legacy of artistic freedom and social change.

Sources:

* Daly, Ann. “Isadora Duncan’s Dance Theory.” Dance Research Journal, vol. 26, no. 2, 1994, pp. 24–31. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1477914. Accessed 29 May 2024

* Francis, Elizabeth. “From Event to Monument: Modernism, Feminism and Isadora Duncan.” American Studies, vol. 35, no. 1, 1994, pp. 25–45. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40642583. Accessed 29 May 2024.

* Genthe, Arnold, photographer. Isadora Duncan dancer. Between 1915 and 1942; from a negative taken between 1915 and 1923. Photograph. Retrieved from the Library of Congress, <www.loc.gov/item/2018704008/>.

* Kirstein, Lincoln. “Isadora Duncan.” The Bulletin of the Museum of Modern Art, vol. 9, no. 2, 1941, pp. 10–11. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/4057836. Accessed 29 May 2024.

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Sources:

* “6469 : Abraham Lincoln, Springfield, Ill. Improvement in method of lifting vessels over shoals. Patented May 22, 1849.” Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/item/2021772198/

* “Abraham Lincoln’s Patent Model.” National Museum of American History, https://www.si.edu/object/abraham-lincolns-patent-model%3Anmah_213141

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On May 20, 1862, President Abraham Lincoln, the man with a face as etched and weathered as the divided land he governs, takes his place at his desk. Before him is a document destined to change the American landscape and the lives of millions of Americans. With deliberate care, President Lincoln dips his pen into an inkwell and then signs the Homestead Act into law, the quill scratching across the parchment. 

This Act offers 160 acres of public land to any American over the age of 21 who is either a U.S. citizen or legally declares to become one and has never fought against the U.S. or helped its enemies. The terms are simple yet profound: settlers secure a plot for a modest fee of $1.25 per acre, provided they commit to improving the land by building a home and cultivating crops. This covenant of land and labor embodies the spirit of the nation, one of manifest destiny and individual drive and perseverance. 

As the ink dries, plans for migration begin. On January 1, 1863, the Act goes into effect. From the bustling, crowded cities of the East, families pack their belongings, driven by tales of fertile soil and the promise of autonomy. They embark on perilous journeys, their wagons creaking under the weight of their aspirations, their hearts buoyed by the vision of a better life. The vast, untamed expanse of the West beckons, all with its beauty and harsh challenges, and new beginnings.

Yet, this era of expansion is not without its shadows. Some of the land that will be eagerly claimed has long been home to Native American tribes, whose lives and traditions will be inevitably disrupted. As dreams are fulfilled, displacement and conflict become stark reminders of the complex and often painful parts of migrations.

With time, the plains will reshape with farms and wooden cabins. Communities blossom, linked by the shared experience of hardship and triumph. And towns emerge. The Act will become one of the most important parts of U.S. history. It will stay in effect until 1976 for most of the U.S. and in Alaska until 1986, with about 270 million acres claimed.

Sources:

* "About the Homestead Act." National Park Service, https://www.nps.gov/home/learn/historyculture/abouthomesteadactlaw.htm

* Anderson, Hannah L. “That Settles It: The Debate and Consequences of the Homestead Act of 1862.” The History Teacher, vol. 45, no. 1, 2011, pp. 117–37. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41304034. Accessed 20 May 2024.

* "Homestead Act (1862)." National Archives, https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/homestead-act

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Anandibai Joshi journeyed from India to the U.S. to pursue a medical school education in 1883. Prior to leaving, she wrote her sponsor, a wealthy woman from New Jersey who, over years of correspondence, had become akin to family, “You have reason to think that this very distant voyage will be hazardous for a girl of 18 because the world is full of frauds and dangers, but dear Aunt, wherever I cast my glance, I see nothing but a straight and smooth way. I fear no miseries. I shrink not at the recollection of dangers, nor do I fear them.”

This was Anandibai. Fearless. Staunch in the pursuit of her goals. By eighteen, she had already overcome much. Married at the age of nine, at fourteen, she endured the loss of her child ten days after giving birth. And then she spent much of her late teens in poor health, suffering from a multitude of maladies, including weakness and frequent headaches.

But education was important to her — it had been for much of her life. Born into a wealthy family, her father went against customs to have his daughter educated, and her husband supported Anandibai’s studies as well.

In the U.S., she was admitted to and attended the Women’s Medical College. After graduating in 1886, she traveled back to India in hopes of practicing medicine there. But she became ill shortly after her return, passing away in 1887 from tuberculosis.

Sources:

* "Anandibai Joshi." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anandi_Gopal_Joshi

* McNeill, Leila. "This 19th Century “Lady Doctor” Helped Usher Indian Women Into Medicine." Smithsonian Magazine, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/19th-century-lady-doctor-ushered-indian-women-medicine-180964613/

* Photo taken by Caroline Wells Healey Dall, Drexel University College of Medicine / "Anandibai joshi." Wikimedia Commons, Wikimedia Foundation, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Anandibai_joshi.jpg

* Verghese, Danielle. "The Graduates." https://www.uwire.com/2014/08/04/the-graduates/

* Wikimedia Commons, Wikimedia Foundation, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Anandibai_Joshee,_Kei_Okami,_and_Tabat_M._Islambooly.jpg

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Dr. Rosalyn Sussman Yalow was born to Russian immigrant parents in New York City on July 19, 1921, and grew up in the Bronx. Her upbringing was modest yet deeply enriched by her parents' emphasis on education. Encouraged by her father, a laborer in the garment industry, and her mother, a seamstress, Rosalyn displayed an early aptitude for learning.

At fifteen, Rosalyn began Hunter College, an all-female, tuition-free university in New York. Her parents wanted their daughter to become a teacher. Rosalyn quickly realized that she wanted to pursue a different career path. In the words of a classmate,

"She was very single-minded. She knew — absolutely knew — she was going to become a physicist. She told this to anyone who would listen."

As Rosalyn said about the decision, 

"I was excited about achieving a career in physics. My family, being more practical, thought the most desirable position for me would be as an elementary school teacher." 

After finishing her degree, Rosalyn sought to enroll in a Ph.D. program in physics. However, this proved to be a struggle because she was a woman and Jewish. Finally, she received an offer from the University of Illinois - Urbana as a favor to one of her Hunter College professors. Upon accepting the offer, Rosalyn became the only woman among the 400 faculty and teaching assistants in the College of Engineering. 

Following her studies, Rosalyn joined the Federal Telecommunication Laboratory for a year and then worked as a teacher at Hunter College. But it would be her job at the Bronx Veterans Administration (VA) Hospital that would define her career.

The idea that physics could impact medicine, or medical physics as the field is called, was still relatively new. Rosalyn's husband, a fellow physicist she met in graduate school, thought it could be a good field for her. Upon the suggestion, Rosalyn volunteered to do research with a medical physicist at Columbia University. That physicist would recommend Rosalyn for the position at the VA. As Rosalyn recalled,

"I volunteered to work in [Dr. Quimby's] laboratory to gain research experience...She took me to see 'The Chief,' Dr. G. Failla, dean of American medical physicists. After talking to me for a while, he picked up the phone, dialed, and I heard him say, 'Bernie, if you want to set up a radioisotope service, I have someone you must hire.'"

With that, Rosalyn joined the Bronx VA in 1947 as the Head of a new Radioisotope Unit. There, she would meet physician Solomon A. Berson, and over the next twenty-two years, the two collaborated on groundbreaking research. 

Rosalyn's and Solomon's partnership resulted in the development of radioimmunoassay (RIA). This technique allowed for precisely measuring minute quantities of biological substances in blood and other bodily fluids. Its significance lay in its ability to detect hormones, enzymes, and other biological molecules at levels previously thought impossible. Some applications included diagnosing thyroid disorders and monitoring insulin levels in diabetes patients. 

This innovation soon became an indispensable tool in medical research and clinical practice, opening new avenues for research in endocrinology, diabetes, just about "every field of medicine." In 1959, Rosalyn and Solomon published their seminal paper on RIA, garnering widespread acclaim and transforming medical diagnostics. 

As the two brought their ideas to the medical world, they also took the onus of marketing their work. "We not only discovered radioimmunoassay, we had to popularize it," Rosalyn said. They often traveled, about which Rosalyn said, "You don't go to the West Coast for two days and come back on the red-eye unless you're crazy like me." Rosalyn, who had been described earlier in her career as a "cheerful little dark-haired person, not very imposing," now had people worried that she was too aggressive. Yet, the people she worked most closely with, those in her lab, didn't see her this way. She was warm, thinking about their comforts and doing her best to care for them. 

For her work, Rosalyn received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1977, becoming only the second woman to receive this honor in that category. 

Throughout all these hard-working years, Rosalyn balanced work with family life. She and her husband raised two children, and he often took on more of the responsibilities, though Rosalyn did her best to help with the household even after long days of work. For her, doing so was just as important as doing outstanding research. Still, it wasn't an easy balance to strike, especially as Rosalyn was often away.

In 2011, Rosalyn passed away at the age of 89. 

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Sources:

* Dash, Joan. The Triumph of Discovery: Women Scientists who Won the Nobel Prize. United States, Julian Messner, 1991.

* Kahn, C. Ronald, and Jesse Roth. “Rosalyn Sussman Yalow (1921—2011).” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 109, no. 3, 2012, pp. 669–70. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23077082. Accessed 9 May 2024.

* "Rosalyn Sussman Yalow." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosalyn_Sussman_Yalow

* Straus, Eugene. Rosalyn Yalow, Nobel Laureate: A Biographical Memoir. United Kingdom, Basic Books, 1998.

* Wikimedia Commons, Wikimedia Foundation, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rosalyn_Yalow.jpg

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