Mary and Charlotte welcome Professor Maria Wyke back on the show to talk about two of the most famous words in cinema: “I’m Spartacus!” Hollywood has always had an obsession with Ancient Rome. So much so, the Roman Epic - or sword-and-sandal - is a cinematic genre in its own right. Stanley Kubrick’s Spartacus, starring Kirk Douglas, Laurence Olivier and a host of other stars, is perhaps the towering achievement. But what is Spartacus really about? 

It was adapted by Dalton Trumbo from Howard Fast’s 1951 novel. Both men had fallen foul of the House Un-American Activities Committee and were blacklisted from Hollywood. Their names were proudly displayed at the start of the film, marking the decline of the Committee’s influence on American culture. In some ways, the refusal by Spartacus’ slave army to betray their leader to the Roman authorities is a message about free speech and solidarity. The character of black slave Draba who defies white supremacist authority is also a statement on the Civil Rights movement. But the brilliance of Spartacus is that it defies easy interpretation and deliberately plays with themes and symbols - not least in the crucifixion scene at the end of the film. 

Mary, Charlotte and Maria move forwards a few decades to Gladiator - and argue the power of that film is the way it similarly seems to, but doesn’t quite, push a moral message. Gladiator 2 on the other hand… 

Further reading

Our wonderful guest Maria Wyke’s book Projecting the Past (Routlege, 1997) has a fascinating chapter on Spartacus

Howard Fast’s novel Spartacus, on which Kubrick’s film was based, is on the Internet Archive.

See also: 

A. Futtrell, “Seeing Red”, in Sandra Joshel et al. (eds), Imperial Projections (Johns Hopkins UP, 2001)

Martin Winkler, Spartacus: Film and History (Wiley-Blackwell, 2007)

Martin Winkler, Gladiator: Film and History (Wiley-Blackwell, 2004)

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Shortly after its formation, the United States of America initiated a building program for both state and federal governments, turning to Ancient Greece and Rome for inspiration. As Mary and Charlotte discover… In-between duties like writing the Declaration of Independence, acting as Minister to France and being President, Thomas Jefferson found time to make inspiration trips to study Roman architecture in France. Although he didn’t design the Capitol in Washington DC, he set the tone with his designs for Monticello (his Virginia home) as well as the University of Virginia and Virginia State Capitol. 

Over the decades, other influences gained greater prominence - whether nostalgic styles like the gothic or the modernity of Frank Lloyd Wright. But neo-classicism is on the rise once again. According to President Trump’s executive order Making Architecture Beautiful Again, ‘classical’ is the preferred style for federal buildings - in particular, the plan for a ‘United States Triumphal Arch’. 

Mary and Charlotte recommend some further reading:

Donald Trump’s executive order on classical architecture.

Edwin Heathcote, the architecture critic of the Financial Times, on triumphal arches and DC.

The DC Commission of Fine Arts have published the schemes for Trump’s arch: https://www.cfa.gov/system/files/meeting-materials/1-CFA-16APR26-1-EOP_DOI_Arch-pres%20%5BApr9%5D.pdf

The first scheme for the Navy Memorial, including the triumphal arch is shown here: https://escholarship.org/content/qt9r40k5hd/qt9r40k5hd_noSplash_87482e06371178d8fcd9bb449eb06f39.pdf

A useful website for Jefferson’s classical architecture: https://www.monticello.org/jefferson-and/architecture

The temporary triumphal arch in DC is pictured here: https://ggwash.org/view/40678/dc-once-had-its-own-arc-de-triomphe

The detailed history of triumphal arches, from antiquity to now, is the subject of Peter Howell, The Triumphal Arch (Unicorn, 2021)

Mary’s The Roman Triumph (Harvard UP, pb, 2009) discusses the Roman significance of these arches, and the incident with Pompey’s elephants.

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Last year, Mary spent nine months in Washington D.C. During this time, she became interested in visual iconography and real objects of Ancient Greece and Rome on display in the city’s museums and streets. In this episode, she tells Charlotte about her fascination with a sarcophagus in the Smithsonian collection, which was believed once to have held the remains of Emperor Alexander Severus. 

In the 1830s, a US navy commander based in the Mediterranean ‘acquired’ the sarcophagus in Lebanon and sent it back home with the suggestion it could be used as a tomb for President Andrew Jackson. This forced the question: was it appropriate for an American president to be buried in a Roman sarcophagus? On one hand, the USA liked to position itself as the inheritor of Roman values. On the other, Severus, who became Emperor after his cousin Elagabalus (a favourite of the show) was bumped off, was a despot, even if a comparatively benign one. The problem was heightened by the fact Jackson was frequently accused of acting like a ‘Caesar’. The conundrum of the sarcophagus went right to the height of the tensions - then as now - in the USA’s idolisation of Ancient Rome. 

As Mary reveals, there are many twists and turns to this story, which ends - bizarrely enough - with Peter Fonda’s Harley-Davison from the film Easy Rider. How are the two connected? Listen to find out! 

Mary and Charlotte recommend some further reading:

Mary wrote about this sarcophagus a few years back in the Wall Street Journal: https://www.wsj.com/arts-culture/books/a-tomb-not-fit-for-a-president-11634356860 (it’s pay-walled, but the free bit gives you a great picture of a couple admiring it); and it was the object that book-ended her Twelve Caesars: Images of power from the ancient world to the modern (Princeton UP, pb, 2023).

See also, from the Smithsonian: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/andrew-jackson-populist-even-deathbed-180962124/

The Roman archaeology of the sarcophagus: J B Ward Perkins, “Four Garland Sarcophagi in America”, in the journal Archaeology for 1958.

Andrew Jackson (and his Caesarism) features in the first chapter of Margaret Malamud’s Ancient Rome and Modern America (Wily Blackwell, 2009)

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In case you haven’t noticed… the USA is celebrating a special anniversary. Mary and Charlotte talk to one of America’s leading scholars of ancient Rome and its modern reception, Joy Connolly, about why so much of the struggle for independence deployed the words, images and sometimes actual clothing of the Ancient Romans. 

They discuss George Washington’s production of the tragedy of Cato in the revolutionary army and Joseph Warren’s donning of a toga to incite the rebels. They ask why the Declaration of Independence and Constitution drew so heavily on Roman writers like Cicero and Virgil, why Cincinnati was named after the authoritarian Cincinnatus, and to what extent the Republicans and Democrats resemble the classical ideologies they named themselves after. Most of all, the big question: did the Founders know that Virgil’s words e pluribus unum (out of many, one), which became a rallying cry for the merging of the colonies into one, actually came from a recipe for cheese spread? 

Mary and Charlotte recommend some further reading:

Joy has written about the use of classics in the revolutionary period and later in: “Classical Education and the Early American Democratic Style” in S. Stephens and P. Vasunia (eds), Classics and National Cultures (Oxford UP, 2010) and “Past Sovereignty: Roman Freedom for Modern Revolutionaries” in Basil Duffalo (ed), Roman Error (Oxford UP, 2017). You can read more about her work at ACLS.

There are many useful introductions to different aspects of the Romanness of the American Revolution. We have enjoyed:

C. J. Richard, The Founders and the Classics (Harvard UP, pb, 1995)

M. Malamud, Ancient Rome and Modern America (Wiley Blackwell, pb, 2008)

M. N. S. Sellars, “The Roman Republic and the French and American Revolutions", in H. Flower (ed), The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic (Cambridge UP, pb, 2004)

More focussed on cultural influence than any directly political impact is W. L. Vance, America’s Rome (Yale UP, 1990)

An article on Joseph Warren’s toga.

A 1903 letter to the New York Times discussing the tracing of “e pluribus unum” to “Moretum”, the poem once attributed to Virgil that offers a recipe for herby, garlicky cheese spread.

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Nearly 2000 years before Sigmund Freud published The Interpretation of Dreams, a sage in Ephesus (now in Turkey) wrote a book whose title translates as… The Interpretation of Dreams. Armed with Artemidorus’ book, Mary and Charlotte dive into the surreal and revealing dreamscape of the Ancients. 

If you’ve ever had a dream about flying or losing teeth or sex with a stranger, well… Artemidorus has a view about what this really means. Today, we might find his interpretations a little too neat and prescriptive, but they provide a fascinating insight into life on the edge of the Roman empire, including what people chatted (or sang) about at the public baths, the prevalence of mice in the home, and the hopes, aspirations and fears of household slaves.

As with our episodes on Roman joke and cook books, we discover that the Ancients were simultaneously more like us and more dissimilar than we might expect. 

Mary and Charlotte recommend some further reading:

The best translation of Artemidorus is by Martin Hammond in the Oxford World’s Classics series (OUP,pb, 2020) with an introduction by Peter Thonemann.

Thonemann discusses the text and its context in his An Ancient Dream Manual: Artemidorus’ The Interpretation of Dreams (OUP, 2020)

A classic article is by Simon Price, “The future of dreams: from Freud to Artemidorus”, originally published in Past and Present for 1986, reprinted in R Osborne (ed), Studies in Greek and Roman Society (Cambridge UP, pb, 2012)

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Mary and Charlotte talk to Professor Maria Wyke, classicist and film historian, about Cleopatra’s rebirth on the screen. By far the most famous Cleopatra film is the 1963 epic starring Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton - at the time the most expensive film ever made and with a steamy on-set love affair between the two stars to match that of the characters they were playing. Almost as brilliant, in its way, is the parody made the following year - Carry on Cleo - giving Kenneth Williams, as Julius Caesar, one of the greatest lines of all time: “Infamy, infamy, they’ve all got it in for me.” 

This pair of films hog the limelight, but Maria shows how cinema’s fascination with Cleo goes right back to the early years of silent film through to the 21st Century. Why? On one hand, the Cleopatra story is an opportunity for spectacle and sex appeal - in other words, good business. On the other, the story is reinvented by each generation, playing on the anxieties and desires of the age. Looking at Cleopatra films tells us a lot about changing attitudes to sex, race and politics over the last 100+ years.  

Mary and Charlotte recommend some further reading:

Maria has written about Cleopatra on film in her books Projecting the Past (Routledge, pb, 1997) and The Roman Mistress (OUP, 2002).

Films also figure in Lucy Hughes Hallett’s, Cleopatra: Histories, Dreams and Distortions (Fourth Estate, pb, 2026)

A discussion of the Taylor-Burton film on its 60th anniversary: https://www.theguardian.com/film/2023/jun/12/cleopatra-60th-anniversary-elizabeth-taylor-richard-burton 

And for the fashion aspect: https://fashionhistory.fitnyc.edu/1963-mankiewicz-cleopatra/ 

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Mary and Charlotte talk to Lucy Hughes-Hallett, acclaimed biographer and author of ‘Cleopatra: Histories, Dreams and Distortions’, about Cleopatra’s afterlife on the page. Lucy begins by observing that “the people who write about her aren't interested in describing her as a real person. They use her as a kind of mirror onto which they can project their own prejudices and anxieties and often erotic fantasies.”

In the 14th Century, Boccaccio mined the old evil temptress angle. Geoffrey Chaucer, however, went the other way: she was a martyr to love, choosing to kill herself rather than consider life without Antony. For Shakespeare, she provided the perfect character to study the effects of unbridled passion. After Napoleon’s conquest of Egypt, Cleopatra was orientalised - her skin and hair became darker in pictures and she indulged in decadent acts of cruelty. 

In recent decades, she has been framed as nationalist freedom fighter and feminist hero, but it feels like - even two thousand years on - there is more to explore in this most elusive of historical queens. 

Mary and Charlotte recommend some further reading:

The new edition of Lucy’s book is just out: Cleopatra: Histories, Dreams and Distortions (Fourth Estate, pb, 2026). It has discussion of all the texts we mentioned, and more (plus further bibliography).

In the modern Egyptian tradition, the best known representation of Cleopatra, the freedom fighter is Ahmed Shawqi’s play, The Death of Cleopatra (there is a recent English translation by Jeanette Wahba Sourial Atiya, though not easy to get hold of).

Cleopatra in modern painting and sculpture is the subject of a useful illustrated essay online”

https://artuk.org/discover/stories/cleopatras-legacy-in-art-famous-pharaoh-and-femme-fatale

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Another trailer for Christopher Nolan’s forthcoming adaptation of The Odyssey has just been released, giving more insights into the world the cast and crew have created. Mary and Charlotte give their quick-fire response.

Have your say at…

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For many years, Cleopatra and Mark Antony lived a life of extravagance and passion - or so we’re told. In this episode, Mary and Charlotte look at what happened next. Mark Antony, with Cleopatra, met their enemy Octavian in a sea battle off the coast of Greece - and lost. The Battle of Actium was a turning point for Rome. After this moment, Octavian rebranded himself as Emperor Augustus, bringing an official end to many centuries of republican rule. 

Rather than face capture and humiliation, both Antony and Cleopatra took their lives. The story of their final days survives through Plutarch, but how much of this official Roman version can we trust? Was Cleopatra really an exotic temptress who seduced Mark Antony into treason? And did she really kill herself with a poisonous snake? Accounts of her death are so tied up in the wider propaganda legitimising Augustus’ rise to Emperor that it’s impossible to know what really happened. 

Soon after her death, she began to haunt the imagination of writers and artists. Mary and Charlotte believe she probably inspired the figure of Dido of Carthage in Virgil’s Aeneid, written only a decade or so later. The North African queen who takes her life for love of a Roman. But Virgil was by no means the last to take inspiration from her story, as we will be discovering in the next episode…. 

Mary and Charlotte recommend some further reading:

The poem by Horace is his Odes 1.37 (Nunc est bibendum, “Now is the time for drinking”) with a decent translation online.

(Charlotte's school song, oddly based on this poem, began “Nunc canendum, nunc laetandum” – “Now is the time for singing, now is the time for rejoicing,” all prime examples of gerundives of obligation, for the Latin nerds)

Maria Wyke (who we will meet later in this Cleopatra series, talking about Cleopatra movies) explores the propaganda of the emperor Augustus and the figure of Cleopatra in this article available online: https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10143408/1/Augustan%20Cleopatras.pdf

And more on Augustan propaganda: https://cleopatradigitized.wordpress.com/cleopatra-and-augustan-propaganda-after-the-battle-of-actium/

The links between Dido and Cleopatra are discussed here: https://womeninantiquity.wordpress.com/2020/11/16/cleopatra-and-dido/

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If it hadn’t been for Rome, Cleopatra’s sole claim to fame may have been that she married two of her brothers. But then Julius Caesar arrived in Alexandria… In this episode, Mary and Charlotte recount what happened next. Caesar came to Egypt in pursuit of his great enemy, Pompey the Great, and became Cleopatra’s lover. They embarked on a cruise of the Nile, during which Caesar created the modern calendar system. 

After Caesar returned to Rome, Cleopatra bore a son, who she named Caesarion. She followed Caesar to Rome and was there at the time of his assassination. Afterwards, Caesar’s ally Mark Antony and great-nephew Octavian defeated Caesar’s assassins, then turned on one another. Mark Antony formed an alliance with Cleopatra and became her second Roman lover. Together, they embarked on one of the most famous romances in history. Passionate, extravagant, and - spoiler alert - doomed. 

Mary and Charlotte recommend some further reading:

Plutarch’s Life of Mark Antony (the main ancient source for his relationship with Cleopatra) is available online: https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Antony*.html

In addition to the books we recommended for the last episode, Adrian Goldsworthy’s Antony and Cleopatra (Weidenfeld & Nicolson pb, 2011) focuses in detail on the politics of their relationship. 

For the complexity of the Roman calendar (and be warned it is complex), see Jörg Rüpke, The Roman Calendar (Wiley Blackwell, 2011), or more briefly Robert Hannah, Greek and Roman Calendars (Bristol Classical Press, 2005). You can find an online discussion of Caesar and Cleopatra’s Nile cruise online: https://penelope.uchicago.edu/encyclopaedia_romana/miscellanea/cleopatra/egypt.html

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