John Vespasian

Philosophy is either perennial or false because it is based on the principles underlying the universe and human nature. Great thinkers such as #aristotle (384-322 BC) identified and codified those principles. When we affirm that Aristotle’s #philosophy is true, we mean that Aristotle has correctly identified those principles and then codified them in an intelligible manner. Generation after generation, people have been relying on a handful of philosophers to figure out the world. True answers help us understand the principles of identity and causality, how emotions are generated, and distinguishing good from evil. Seneca made important contributions to #stoicism , the set of philosophical ideas that prevailed in Europe for six hundred years: roughly since Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) until Augustine (354-430 AD). Stoicism is an ethical system, not a complete philosophical system. It provides guidance about how to pursue happiness, avoid pain and live effectively, but does not say much about metaphysics, epistemology, politics and aesthetics. Other than assuming that the universe is driven by reason, Stoic philosophers did not venture beyond the obvious. Their view of “reason” as the driving force of the universe is rather mystical and does not correspond to the Aristotelian definitions of rationality and logic. Nonetheless, despite being limited to ethics, Stoicism gives us important insights into human behaviour. #seneca compiled those insights and put them in writing, using examples from his personal life and from history. Seneca’s insights are worth studying because they constitute a corpus of proven practical advice. Thousands of people have applied Seneca’s recommendations successfully and improved their lives. We can do the same in our century, especially with the following key ideas from Seneca. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/how-to-use-senecas-philosophy-today/

Arthur #schopenhauer (1788–1860) was deeply familiar with Eastern philosophy, in particular #buddhism and #hinduism . He held in high regard the Eastern approach to stress reduction by reducing one’s emotional engagement. In Schopenhauer’s books, you won’t find a call for “nirvana” and other Eastern philosophical concepts. Nonetheless, he put forward recommendations that are similar to “nirvana.” There’s no doubt that Schopenhauer deployed great efforts to draw the best ideas from Buddhism and Hinduism, and turned them into practical advice. In contrast to Buddhism and Hinduism, Schopenhauer didn’t recommend the suppression of desires. He came up with mild, soft advice that everybody can implement without giving up all his dreams and daily comforts. Schopenhauer presented his advice primarily in “The world as will and representation” (1818) and in his essay collection “Parerga and Paralipomena” (1851). Amongst other strategies, he favoured self-awareness, #prudence and foresight, keeping a margin of safety, self-reliance and risk diversification. In this context, we must ask why he focused on Buddhism and Hinduism instead of #taoism . What made him prefer the ideas from Indian philosophers to those developed by Chinese Taoists? The answer to this question is crucial to understanding what Schopenhauer stood for. His theory of the will (“life force”) is telling us that the will is driving the thoughts and actions of all living creatures, but that the will is not omnipotent. In “The world as will and representation,” Schopenhauer is describing in detail the dire influence of the will, but he is also offering hope. Human beings can adopt protective measures to stay rational and minimise the distortions caused by the will. His theory of the will contemplates a narrow width in which humans can adopt countermeasures. People are not defenceless puppets driven by the all-powerful will. That’s the essential message from the books written by Schopenhauer: despite all constraints, you can still influence events and increase your happiness. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/schopenhauers-philosophy-of-life-compared-with-taoism/

In his works, Arthur #schopenhauer (1788–1860) pointed out that #love #relationships often fail because people will initially idealise their beloved, and experience disappointment when they realise that their expectations do not match reality. Schopenhauer presented those views in “The world as will and representation” (1818) and in “Parerga and Paralipomena” (1851). He warned readers against seeking short-term pleasure without assessing the cost and risks involved. According to Schopenhauer, the whole cosmos is driven by the will (“life force”), which prompts living creatures to secure their survival and reproduction, and seek short-term pleasure. In his warning against delusion, Schopenhauer describes all problems accurately, but fails to provide solutions; he warns us against blind love, but fails to outline workable alternatives. The search for better answers must start with the definition of love. Schopenhauer describes love as “intense attraction” in a rather simplistic way. In doing so, he overlooks five hundred years of literary and psychological exploration. Schopenhauer lacks a nuanced view of love relationships. He could have grasped those nuances by reading the works of Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374) or Petrarch, the first poet who explored the complexities of love. In contrast to Schopenhauer’s oversimplification, Petrarch idealised #romantic relationships. His poems reflect the period between the Middle Ages and the #renaissance , a period when knights, aristocratic ladies and troubadours still played a major role. While Schopenhauer regarded all idealised love as delusion, Petrarch wrote sonnets about Laura, a mysterious woman that appears unattainable to him. Instead of referring to the will and instinctual forces, Petrarch wrote about beauty, gentle hearts, and eternal affection between kindred souls. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/idealism-in-schopenhauers-views-on-love-and-relationships/

Sigmund #freud (1856–1939) did not acknowledge at every opportunity an intellectual debt towards Arthur #schopenhauer (1788–1860) because he claimed to have created the theory of the #unconscious or theory of #instincts as a driving force of human psychology. However, anyone familiar with Freud’s and Schopenhauer’s ideas cannot possibly fail to notice the close similarity between Freud’s theory of the unconscious and Schopenhauer’s ideas, in particular, the theory of the will (“life force”). Let us examine in detail how Freud’s work relies on a view of human life very similar to Schopenhauer’s. Freud published in 1914 his essay “On narcissism” in which he argues that a certain level of self-respect is necessary for a #healthy personality. The problem arises when the individual is pushing his desires (conscious or unconscious) beyond what is socially acceptable. Schopenhauer’s influence is already visible at this stage. In “The world as will and representation” (1818), Schopenhauer had pointed out that the will (“life force” or “primary energy”) is often prompting humans to foolish behaviour. Narcissism is just one example of the aberrant influence of the will, although Schopenhauer did not pick up this clue. He regarded the will as a strong, irrational force that disrupts how people behave, but did not go into psychological details. If one follows Schopenhauer’s logic, mental disturbance can be attributed to the dire influence of the will. Schopenhauer did mention #emotional suffering but failed to categorise the mental distortions (stress, anxiety, panic, narcissism, and others). As time goes by, Freud’s publications resemble more closely to Schopenhauer’s theory of the will but not consistently. When Freud deviates from Schopenhauer’s #philosophy , he comes up with ideas that make no sense. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/schopenhauers-influence-on-freud/

The ethics system proposed by Arthur #schopenhauer (1788-1860) is similar to Ancient #stoicism in some aspects, but offers more complex explanations on the workings of nature, society, and human motivation. Schopenhauer theorised that life is fundamentally marked by the influence of the will (“life force”) which will generate a large amount of suffering and dissatisfaction if you fail to take countermeasures. The theory of the will was put forward by Schopenhauer in his work “The world as will and representation” (1818); people are subjected to the influence of the will, driven to ensure their survival, reproduction, and seek short-term pleasure. According to Schopenhauer, the will is prompting humans to continual struggle. It generates more and more #desires that cannot all be satisfied. The way to #happiness entails two steps. First, you should grow self-aware of the influence of the will. This means, paying attention to your motivation, goals and desires, see if they make sense, and assess their costs. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/schopenhauer-on-ethics/

What are the characteristics of the #philosophy of the self developed by Arthur #schopenhauer (1788-1860)? Which are the differences between his ideas and those of other philosophers? Schopenhauer outlined his philosophy in “The world as will and representation,” a book published in 1818. The book puts forward the “theory of the will” as an explanation for the cosmos, society, and human nature. According to this theory, the will (“life force”) is driving all living creatures to ensure their own survival, reproduction, and to seek short-time pleasure. To a large extent, the concept of #instincts in Sigmund #freud (1856-1939) corresponds to Schopenhauer’s theory of the will. In Freud’s books, instincts are also defined as unconscious and primordial forces driving animals and humans. The will shapes the human self, but it’s not the only element at play. The self entails individual aspects that are enhanced by #selfawareness and thinking, and weakened by passivity, blind conformity, and ignorance. According to Schopenhauer, the will is insatiable, relentless, short-sighted and often destructive, but the human self doesn’t need to fall prey to those influences. Schopenhauer views the self as the individual expression of the will, but accentuating any individual aspects requires a substantial effort. The less personal effort, the stronger the grip of the will on the concerned person. If there is no effort on the part of the individual, the will is going to take full control. Self-awareness is the starting point for enhancing the self. If you grow aware of the will, you can adopt countermeasures to protect yourself, reduce risk, and increase your happiness. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/schopenhauers-views-on-the-self/

There is fierce opposition to the #philosophy of #education put forward by Arthur #schopenhauer (1788-1860). The opposition goes beyond little details. It’s essential, fundamental, ferocious, and relentless. Schopenhauer created his own antagonists from the moment that he diverged from the doctrines of #plato (429-347 BC). You can find those doctrines in Plato’s book “The Republic.” Plato employed grandiloquent terms for describing his ideas about education. He spoke about a “just, harmonious society,” but in practice, he was proposing a totalitarian, oppressive and tyrannical education system. According to Plato, the purpose of education is to construct a society ruled by philosophers like himself, who impose their views on everyone else by means of hired warriors. What gives philosophers the right to rule? Plato affirms that they have access to secret knowledge (“the world of forms”). It is abstract #knowledge that nobody else can access or grasp. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/opposition-to-schopenhauers-philosophy-of-education/

Stoicism tends to make a deeper impression on individuals who enjoy solitude, or at least, who don’t dislike it. The reason is not difficult to fathom. Solitude begets #thoughtfulness , which then begets a drive for #selfimprovement . Seneca was conscious of this fact. In his 7th Letter to Lucilius, #seneca advises that, without a fair measure of #solitude , it is difficult to focus on what really counts in life. In contrast, if we are surrounded by crowds and noise all the time, chances are that we’ll align our behaviour with our peers. Gregarious people tend to succumb to social pressure far more readily than loners do. The warning against exaggerated gregariousness is one the key insights from Seneca’s #philosophy . He had nothing against socialising, especially with friends and family, but only to a reasonable extent. Why did #seneca call for setting limits to gregariousness? Because it can become too much of a good thing. If we engage in exaggerated socialising, Seneca explained, we run the risk of undermining our moral autonomy. In his 7th Letter to Lucilius, Seneca enunciated this principle negatively and positively, providing us examples of what to avoid and what to do. Those examples will still resonate with today’s readers. Seneca’s negative formulation is warning readers against the worry and anxiety ensuing from adopting other people’s values without having thought them through. Don’t adopt the ideas of the loud, thoughtless crowd, wrote Seneca, because erroneous ideas might lead to catastrophe. In his positive formulation, Seneca praises self-reliance and non-conformity, not as acts of blind rebellion, but as signs of reason. The important thing, explained Seneca, is to align our actions with reason, even doing so places us in a minority. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/key-senecas-insights-to-implement-today/

Philosophers are all too eager to speak about the benefits of their #ideals , but will seldom mention the drawbacks. I’m afraid that it is up to the readers to figure out the problems and adopt countermeasures. Seneca came up with essential insights about #stoicism and the good life, but also made some dire mistakes. I encourage readers to study his #philosophy carefully, as though it was marked with the notice “Warning: Potential danger.” The fact that #seneca was forced to commit suicide should serve as a warning of severe danger. Considering that Seneca ended up killing himself, it is fair to question the soundness of his philosophy. If Seneca was so clever, why did he end up so badly? If his philosophy was so effective, how come that he killed himself? If Stoicism enables people to find happiness, how come that its cultural influence has diminished? Seneca should have addressed these questions because, by the time he started to write, Stoic philosophy was already three hundred years old. The ideas of #zeno of Citium (334-262 BC) and Cleanthes (330-230 BC) had been put into practice by many generations. Seneca could examine a vast body of philosophical knowledge, and reach accurate conclusions. In his Letters to Lucilius, Seneca deployed serious efforts to examine the practical implications of Stoic philosophy. For a decade, until his fifty-fifth birthday approximately, he lived as he preached and did well. Later on, he went astray and suffered the consequences. Seneca was right in many of his recommendations; when he told us to devote our leisure time to #personalgrowth , he was giving us good advice. In his 79th Letter to Lucilius, he warned us against “empty amusements” twenty centuries before video-games and soap operas. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/senecas-warning-against-stoicism/

In history, #stoicism was the first #philosophy that regarded #resilience as a crucial virtue. Every Stoic principle rests on the assumption that resilience delivers important benefits. Why did Stoic philosophers place resilience at the centre of their ethics? Because their #pessimistic expectations had led them to view conflict, #setbacks and poverty as normal events. Stoics expect life to get from bad to worse, with little hope of turning things around. They consider resilience as a major virtue because it enables people to survive, to keep trudging forward in the face of pain and misery. In fact, one could regard the strengthening of one’s soul as the central #purpose of Stoicism. Seneca took over this principle from earlier Stoic philosophers and magnified it. His advice for becoming psychologically strong fills each page of his essays such as “On the Shortness of Life” and of his Letters to Lucilius. Does resilience guarantee #happiness ? No, it does not, but it constitutes a prerequisite of happiness. It enables individuals to deal with negative events without growing discouraged. In his 78th Letter to Lucilius, Seneca explains that resilience plays a crucial role in human happiness. From the 78th Letter, I draw the conclusion that, if we acquire this #virtue , we’ll never stop smiling at life, even when confronted with #adversity . Seneca did not become a Stoic overnight. In his early teens, he had familiarised himself with the ideas of #zeno of Citium (334-262 BC) and Cleanthes (330-230 BC). He was relatively well versed on the #principles of Stoicism, at least in theory. His resilience only developed when he was confronted with severe adversity. I am referring to the pulmonary condition that he faced in his twenties, and the exile he had to endure on the island of #corsica shortly upon his forty-fifth birthday. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/seneca-on-resilience/