In contrast to modern philosophers, Seneca did not give a great importance to time. Like other Stoic thinkers, he did not fundamentally care whether his life was long or short. Seneca’s view of time is worth studying because it helps us understand key concepts of #stoicism. In his 49th and 101st Letters to Lucilius, #seneca criticised people who waste their lives in trivial pursuits. On the other hand, the 49th and 101st Letters praise individuals that focus on self-improvement and learning, in particular Stoic #philosophy. Seneca had a negative view of distractions that prevent people from living a philosophical life. He regarded the human #lifespan as sufficient for fulfilling life’s key purposes, provided that we do not get sidetracked by non-essential #goals . If we focus on proper ambitions, Seneca explained, we have the capacity “to achieve the greatest things.” People should be more afraid of wasting their life than of actually dying. Sooner or later, we are all going to die. That’s something that we cannot avoid. However, more often than not, death takes people by surprise. When the time comes, they claim that their life has been too short and that they still have things to do, but have they used their years effectively? In his 49th and 101st Letters to Lucilius, Seneca gives a clear guideline for making the best of one’s days. He encourages us to define our lifetime mission, so that we can plan our days accordingly. Seneca acknowledged that none of us can be sure how long we will live. We can do our best to stay healthy and strong, but even then, we may suffer a lethal accident. What to do in the face of such uncertainty? We have no guarantee of living many years nor of achieving our goals, Seneca acknowledges, but that’s not the main issue. Our priority should be to make the best of each day, so that we are always ready to face death calmly, whenever it comes. Seneca’s indifference to time is conveying one of the major insights of Stoicism, an insight difficult to comprehend in our century, where people feel constantly under time pressure. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/how-seneca-viewed-time/

When we talk about avoiding #distractions , we are assuming that we have clear goals and plans to achieve them. If we keep pursuing those goals assiduously, we are on the right track, but if we get sidetracked, it is because we are getting distracted. #seneca Seneca addressed this subject in the 1st Letter to Lucilius, in which he deplores the human tendency to waste time on things of little importance. The more time we waste on distractions, the less time we will have left for fulfilling our life’s #purpose. The 1st Letter enumerates what Seneca regards as important, namely, studying #philosophy , meditating and cultivating virtue. Seneca calls readers to steer away from distractions and devote their time and energies to the above-mentioned essentials. Seneca regarded “distraction” and “waste” as synonymous; he also condemned inactivity, not as laziness, but as distraction that consumes time that we could have employed productively. Stoicism rarely uses the terms “good” and “bad” because it refrains from rigid moral formulations. It prefers to categorise bad habits as “distractions” that lead to a “disorderly lifestyle.” Like his philosophical predecessors Zeno of Citium (334-262 BC) and Cleanthes (330-230 BC), Seneca abhorred waste and disorder. He viewed them as distorting factors of the logos (reason) that rules the universe and as impediments to human #happiness . For Seneca, peace of mind constituted the key benefit from philosophy. Distractions are obstacles, he argued, that we need to remove or circumvent. If we allow distractions to eat up our time, our thoughts will become disorderly and anxious, making it impossible to achieve peace of mind. How can we avoid distractions? Seneca recommended us to study philosophy and regularly pass review to our actions. If we just keep going without thinking, chances are that we’ll get sidetracked. The best approach, Seneca said, is to devote some time daily to assess “how we’ve lived and what we’ve done.” Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/seneca-on-avoiding-distractions/

We could save an enormous amount of time if we figured out how to remain focused on our goals. Even for #motivated people, it is difficult to keep going day after day without getting sidetracked. #seneca came up with a powerful formula for avoiding distractions. In #history , many people have put it into practice successfully. Some of them had learned it by reading Seneca's works, and others had arrived at the same conclusion by themselves. In his 54th and 77th Letters to Lucilius, Seneca condensed his #wisdom about how to avoid distractions. I can sum up his formula in a few words: Thinking of death is the best way to get focused in life. By "thinking of death," Seneca meant "becoming conscious of our limited lifespan." He didn't mean that we should obsess about death and become paranoiac about health risks, potential accidents, and life after death. Stoicism regards death as part of the normal life cycle, not as a tragedy. Seneca encourages readers to accept that, one day, they will cease to exist. The philosophically minded will strive to use their lifetime in the best possible manner, but there is no reason to agonise about #death itself. Seneca argues against the complaint that life is too short. He believes that human life possesses the right length. If we use our days in an effective manner, we can achieve fulfilment; but if we waste them, it won't make any difference whether we live one year longer or not. For Seneca, only unwise people fear death. Philosophically minded individuals are one hundred per cent focused on making the best of today. They want to make sure that, when their moment arrives, they can accept it calmly. In his 54th and 77th Letters to Lucilius, Seneca advises us to make death our friend by cultivating #virtue each day and doing what needs to be done. Let's learn to regard death as something that is neither good nor bad. It is just a fact of life that needs to be accepted. By adopting this mentality, we will not have to #worry about distractions. By focusing on living philosophically and in the present, we will not waste time and energy on lamentations, worry and #anxiety. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/senecas-formula-for-avoiding-distractions/

It is not exaggerated to affirm that #solitude enabled Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) to become a great philosopher. It took him forty thousand hours of quietness to sharpen his powers of observation, and another forty thousand to make sense of what he had observed. #schopenhauer Schopenhauer held solitude in high regard because it is a prerequisite of self-awareness. Individuals need quietness to understand how the will (“life force”) affects their lives. In his book “The world as will and representation” (1818), Schopenhauer argued that the will never stops prompting humans to pursue goals that are often impossible to achieve. The will is to blame for a large part of #dissatisfaction and suffering in the world. Solitude enables individuals to disengage from the influence of the will. It helps people say no to distractions and confront their passivity, disorientation, and fears. According to Schopenhauer, solitude can help you achieve a profound understanding of the world in general, and yourself (your motivation, goals and desires) in particular. In contrast to modern psychologists, Schopenhauer did not rate solitude negatively. In modern terms, I would say that he refused to be categorised either as alpha (group leader) or beta (group member). In “Parerga and Paralipomena” (1851) and other books that Schopenhauer wrote after moving to Frankfurt, he illustrates how to use solitude to develop #tranquillity and inner peace. Unless you carve a private space of total quietness, you might be driven by the pressures and expectations of society. Unless you cultivate self-awareness, your decisions will be distorted and polluted by the noise of the world. Schopenhauer pointed out that solitude is also necessary for artistic contemplation. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/schopenhauers-views-on-solitude/

I am going to summarise the moral #philosophy put forward by Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) in seven key ideas. The presentation of those key ideas will identify, when relevant, the difference between Schopenhauer and other philosophers. #schopenhauer Schopenhauer’s ethics don’t rely on revelation by God or prophets. His ethics overlap with Christianity in some areas, especially in the appreciation of compassion as a major virtue, but do not refer to the teachings of Jesus Christ as recorded in the #bible. Like Christians, Schopenhauer calls for compassion, but his arguments are different. He views #empathy and compassion as highly desirable attitudes that help alleviate suffering and also improve the life of people who practise them. In 1843, Schopenhauer wrote the book “Two fundamental problems in ethics,” where he justifies compassion on logical and practical grounds alone. In doing so, he refuses to regard compassion as a divine commandment. Schopenhauer views it as a waste of time to devote one’s life to social improvement. In contrast to #confucianism and the Christian faith, Schopenhauer doesn’t predicate justice, #fairness and righteousness. In his book “About the fourfold roots of the principle of sufficient reason” (1814), he acknowledged that human errors, oversights and negligence are partly to blame for the suffering in the world, but does not expect society to improve in the short term. Schopenhauer’s ethical theory focuses first and foremost on action for attaining personal happiness or minimising suffering in the course of a lifetime. Those actions can benefit others and society as a whole, but those are not the main drivers of ethics. Deep understanding of the limited human lifespan prompts Schopenhauer to steer away from unworkable projects. Goals, #ambitions and desires should be kept reasonable. If you remain focused on practical, effective action, chances are that you will achieve good results and help other people along the way. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/schopenhauers-key-ideas-on-ethics/

In the field of ethics, Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) was influenced by Buddhist thought. In particular, #schopenhauer held in high regard the Buddhist concern for suffering, placing empathy and #compassion at the centre of his ethical system. Nonetheless, there are fundamental differences between the ideas of Schopenhauer and the Buddhist #religion. In his book “The world as will and representation” (1808), Schopenhauer theorised that the universe is driven by the will (“life force”). Every living creature is thus prompted to secure its survival, reproduction, and seek short-term pleasure. Buddhist religion does not rely on any principles equivalent to Schopenhauer’s theory of the will. However, it views desires and ambitions as a source of frustration, pain and sorrow. Like Schopenhauer, Buddhism seeks peace of mind by reducing all factors that generate suffering. The overlapping area between Buddhism and Schopenhauer revolves around empathy and compassion; for Buddhists, those are practices that enable humans to reduce pain. I see a similar conception in Schopenhauer, although he put forward the argument that empathy and compassion benefit as well the people who practise them. Practitioners benefit from those #virtues by becoming increasingly self-aware, benevolent and outwardly focused. While Buddhist religion aims at inner peace, Schopenhauer regards empathy and compassion as tools for escaping the dire influence of the will. Schopenhauer’s objective isn’t only inner peace, but also self-awareness, self-reliance and happiness; the latter requires the reduction and elimination of suffering. By drawing ethical values from Buddhism, Schopenhauer is reinforcing his opposition to Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) and Friedrich #hegel (1770-1831); those philosophers had proposed abstract ethical systems unconnected to real-life experience. When Schopenhauer integrated compassion in his morality system, his goal was to increase lifetime #enjoyment by helping people make better decisions. He regarded self-awareness as a prerequisite to clear thinking and making good choices. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/schopenhauer-and-buddhism/

The #philosophy developed by Arthur #schopenhauer (1788-1860) takes some ethical ideas from Buddhism, but those don’t affect the theory of the will (“life force”), which constitutes the essence of Schopenhauer’s work. #buddhism was created by Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama) in the sixth century before our era. Buddha was born into a Nepalese royal family, grew disillusioned with his aristocratic lifestyle, and began to search for the meaning of life. Some of his ethical views were taken over by Schopenhauer twenty-five centuries later. At age twenty-nine, Buddha embraced an #ascetic lifestyle in which meditation and poverty played the central role. Buddha thought that asceticism would lead him to enlightenment. Buddhist tradition tells us that, after six years of asceticism, Buddha attained enlightenment, that is, he figured out that the best way to live is to pursue liberation from suffering. In the ensuing years, Buddha travelled through India to preach his ideas. He emphasised empathy and compassion, which are the two virtues taken over by Schopenhauer in his philosophy. He gave great weight to those virtues in his books “The world as will and representation” (1818) and “Two fundamental problems of ethics” (1843). Despite a partial ethical overlap, Schopenhauer’s goal is different from the goal pursued by Buddha. Schopenhauer was recommending #empathy and compassion as means of escaping or minimising the impact of the will. He argued that, if you do not adopt countermeasures, the will is going to take control of your life and drive you into destructive action. For Buddha, the philosophical #purpose was to eliminate as much as possible suffering. Thus, he advised his disciples to refrain from dwelling in the past or dreaming about the future, so that they would concentrate on the present moment. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/differences-between-schopenhauer-and-buddhism/

The influence of Indian religion on Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1960) falls within a growing interest of Western thinkers in Eastern culture. In the field of art, such a tendency has been named “Orientalism” and is observable particularly amongst French painters. In the period 1810-1820, #Schopenhauer became acquainted with Indian #philosophy by reading its foundational texts. I am referring to the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita. Those give an outline of the three key concepts in Indian religion, namely, the concepts of Maya and #Atman. By “Maya,” Hindus mean a world perception that is tainted by delusion or prejudice. Hindus consider that we can perceive reality only through the veil of Maya, that is, in a distorted and biased manner. Schopenhauer drew a parallelism between the veil of Maya and his theory of the will (“life force”) presented in his book “The world as will and representation,” published in 1818. For persons unfamiliar with the theory of the will, the world cannot be perceived without distortions. The observer is going to prove unable to see things as they are. He is going to arrive at wrong conclusions because the will is blurring his thoughts. By “Atman,” Hindus refer to the individual self or soul. It is the decisive element in establishing one’s relationship with the world. However, the individuality is not total because Hindus regard the “Atman” as part of the universal #consciousness. Schopenhauer drew a parallelism between the “Atman” and self-aware individuals, that is, those who are familiar with the theory of the will. If you cultivate your self-awareness and take measures to protect yourself against the dire influence of the will, you are going to enhance your “Atman.” In his book “On the will in nature” (1832). Schopenhauer employs concepts similar to “Maya” and “Atman.” The former drives human existence because it taints all perceptions with a deceptive veil. It obscures the nature of reality and prompts all persons to focus on the short term and make poor decisions. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/schopenhauer-and-indian-philosophy/

Stoicism is the only philosophy that aims at increasing one’s mental strength. Its founders, #Zeno of Citium (334-262 BC) and Cleanthes (330-230 BC) devoted more efforts to avoiding emotional misery than to achieving success and happiness. Seneca followed the line of thought of his predecessors, but his recommendations are more subtle. It’s not hard to understand why: #Seneca was more knowledgeable than the earlier Stoics. Not only was he familiar with the ideas of #Socrates (470-399 BC), Plato (427-347 BC) and #Aristotle (384-322 BC), but he also possessed a wider experience of the world. None of his predecessors had occupied a high office in the Roman empire, nor acquired a large fortune. Seneca’s Letters to Lucilius give remarkably modern advice on self-control (I would call it “mental strength.) I view the 5th Letter as particularly relevant in this respect. Mental strength, Seneca affirms, is the result of self-reliance and moderation, not the cause; the purpose of cultivating virtue is to grow emotionally balanced, rational and highly resilient. I would compare Seneca’s ideal of a philosophically minded person to a fisherman, who lives modestly and self-sufficiently. Like a fisherman, the philosopher keeps going day after day, unaffected by fashions and social pressures. The philosophically minded love human interaction, Seneca notes, but they will not be swayed by other people’s fear and preoccupations. They are also able to enjoy the pleasures of the world, but they will embrace moderation in order to preserve their peace of mind. Seneca regards mental strength as the highest benefit from #philosophy. Like other Stoic philosophers, he takes for granted that happiness is unlikely and adversity inevitable. Everybody is confronted with adversity sooner or later. The purpose of philosophy is to develop mental and physical habits that render us practically immune to adversity. Mental strength is a synonym for emotional immunity to #adversity. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/senecas-thoughts-on-mental-strength/

It’s useless to be strong in situations where strength plays no meaningful role. Will mental strength alone help you achieve your business, professional and social #goals? Will it render you healthier and happier? I very much doubt it. #Seneca viewed mental strength as the answer to all questions. How do we minimize trouble in life? How do we prevent a nervous breakdown and maintain our motivation after a setback? Through mental strength, he argued. The problem is that Seneca’s questions are severely biased. They assume, wrongly, that human life consists mostly of pain, misery and defeats. They forecast a dark future for everybody, everywhere, in every area of life. They only spread pessimism and resignation. In his 13th and 24th Letters to Lucilius, Seneca categorized coping with adversity as a central goal of his philosophy. He gives his readers advice on how to prepare themselves for bad times, and encourages them to practise daily in their heads, so that they will be ready when disaster strikes. To make things worse, Seneca calls for “mediating daily on the shortness of life,” so that we do not grow too enamoured of anyone or anything. He argues that, by preparing ourselves for the worst, we will suffer less when we experience a large loss. I consider Seneca’s low expectations as the root cause of his philosophical misconceptions: He vastly underrated the human capacity for #selfimprovement and for pursuing and achieving difficult goals. He placed a heavy emphasis on #meditation and moderation, and too little on #motivation and implementation. Seneca’s misconceptions about human psychology run too deep to be ignored. They permeate his complete writings from the first page to the last. They must be addressed and resolved before we can enjoy the benefits of #Stoicism. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/senecas-misconceptions-about-mental-strength/