This study examines how college students conceptualize and support their scientific and supernatural beliefs. While participants expressed much higher confidence in scientific facts, they rarely justified these ideas with empirical evidence, instead relying on deference to authority and social consensus. The findings reveal that students often view scientific claims as infallible and fixed, a perspective that fundamentally contradicts the revisable nature of science. Furthermore, individuals with a stronger understanding of scientific processes were more likely to use evidential reasoning rather than superficial justifications. Ultimately, the research suggests that for many, scientific knowledge is held in a manner qualitatively similar to religious or magical beliefs. These epistemic similarities indicate that science education may not effectively teach students to distinguish the unique evidential foundations of scientific inquiry.

Citation:

Shtulman, Andrew. 2013. “Epistemic Similarities between Students’ Scientific and Supernatural Beliefs.” Journal of Educational Psychology 105(1):199–212. doi:10.1037/a0030282.

Religion and Family in a Changing Society by Penny Edgell investigates the evolving intersection of faith and household structures in modern America. Drawing on data from four communities in upstate New York, the author explores how religious institutions have adapted to the shift from the traditional "male-breadwinner" model to dual-earner, single-parent, and blended families. The text highlights a tension between the "standard package" of 1950s-era family ministry and the contemporary need for more inclusive, diverse religious practices. Key findings indicate that while family formation still motivates religious involvement, the impact is mediated by gender, social class, and personal interpretive schemas. Ultimately, the source provides a sociological framework for understanding how congregations maintain moral authority while navigating the complexities of a pluralistic society.

Citation:

Edgell, Penny. 2005. Religion and Family in a Changing Society. Princeton University Press.

This qualitative study investigates the healthcare experiences and mental well-being of atheists, deists, and agnostics living in Türkiye, a predominantly Muslim society. The researchers conducted interviews with 17 participants to understand how their non-religious identities influence their interactions with medical professionals and their trust in the health system. Findings reveal that many individuals conceal their beliefs to avoid potential stigma, judgmental attitudes, or unsolicited religious advice from providers. These negative encounters often lead to heightened anxiety and a tendency to avoid seeking necessary care, particularly for mental health issues. Consequently, the authors advocate for inclusive, professional, and neutral healthcare practices that respect diverse belief systems. They emphasize that training nurses and physicians in empathy-based communication is essential for ensuring equitable and human-centered treatment for all patients.

Citation:

Soner, Güven, Emel Güven, and Ercan Tunç. 2026. “Healthcare Experiences and Expectations of Atheists, Deists and Agnostics in Türkiye: A Qualitative Study of Mental Well-Being.” Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing n/a(n/a). doi:10.1111/jpm.70148.

In this 2026 article from the Journal of Contemporary Religion, Elaine Schnabel investigates how individuals who leave the church help define modern Christian identity through their personal stories. By interviewing 45 former members, the researcher identifies two major narrative turning points: encountering diverse moral views outside the church and experiencing physical or sexual development that clashed with heteropatriarchal norms. These accounts suggest that many people now perceive local churches as hierarchical spaces where only those who fit specific molds can be authentic. The study argues that disaffiliates are not just former members but active participants in shaping the public’s understanding of what it means to be Christian today. Ultimately, the text encourages religious institutions to recognize how their internal practices and social isolation contribute to the growing trend of disaffiliation in the United States.

Citation:

Schnabel, Elaine. 2026. “Walking on Eggshells: How Disaffiliation Narratives Shape the Meaning of Christian Identity.” Journal of Contemporary Religion 41(1):75–88. doi:10.1080/13537903.2026.2638048.

Breskaya and Pereira Arena’s 2024 article, "Religious Nones and Spirituality: A Comparison between Italian and Uruguayan Youth," utilizes survey data from over 2,000 university students to challenge the oversimplification of "Nones" as a homogeneous group, revealing how their identities are deeply influenced by their national cultural contexts. The study finds that while Nones in both countries are predominantly male and prioritize individual autonomy in their spiritual journeys, Uruguayan Nones—who live in a more explicitly secularized society—paradoxically show stronger spiritual identities, higher rates of belief in God, and more frequent private prayer than their Italian counterparts. Conversely, Italian Nones are more likely to identify as atheists, reflecting a more potentially antagonistic stance toward the dominant Catholic tradition, whereas agnosticism is the more common skeptical position in Uruguay. Ultimately, the authors conclude that the spiritual lives of Nones are defined not just by a "lack" of religion, but by the unique, proactive ways they construct meaning within their specific social and secular environments.

Full Citation:

Breskaya, Olga, and Valentina Pereira Arena. 2024 "Religious Nones and Spirituality: A comparison between Italian and Uruguayan youth." Religions 15(7):769.

This article explores Thomas Luckmann’s influential perspective on secularization, framing it not as a simple decline in faith but as a modern myth of origin. The author explains that this "myth" serves as a narrative for society to define itself as modern by contrasting its current state with a religious past. While some critics use empirical data to argue that religion is objectively vanishing, Luckmann suggests that religion is actually being restructured and relocated into private and non-institutional spheres. The text critiques the limitations of defining religion so broadly that it becomes an essential human trait, which can conflict with evidence of purely secular societies. Ultimately, the source examines how different scholars view secularization as either a scientific fact, a political ideology, or a foundational story that shapes contemporary identity. This analysis highlights how religious authority has shifted toward public arenas like the judiciary, social media, and popular culture.

Citation: Wohlrab-Sahr, Monika. 2026. “Secularization – Just a Myth or a Modern Myth of Origin? Thomas Luckmann’s Contribution to the Critique of Secularization.” Human Studies. doi:10.1007/s10746-026-09833-5.

This academic article explores the social and political status of atheism in Malaysia, a nation where national identity is deeply intertwined with Islamic and theistic principles. The authors characterize Malaysia as a post-plural society, arguing that while religious diversity is celebrated, it is organized under a framework that necessitates a belief in God and prioritizes Malay-Muslim identity. Consequently, atheism is often viewed as a "social symptom" or threat that challenges the country's foundational ideology, the Rukun Negara. The text analyzes the 2017 controversy surrounding an atheist gathering to illustrate how political and religious leaders use public indignation to reinforce conservative orthodoxy. However, the sources also highlight instances where interfaith dialogue and online spaces have allowed for limited public expressions of non-belief. Ultimately, the research demonstrates the paradoxical reality where atheism is simultaneously marginalized as a danger to the state and utilized as a tool for defining the boundaries of Malaysian citizenship.

Citation: Duile, Timo, Ahmad Faizuddin Ramli, Willie Poh Kaw Lik, and Muhammad Aiman Abdul Fatah. 2025. “The (Im-)Possibilities of Public Atheism in Malaysia.” Asian Studies Review 49(3):624–41. doi:10.1080/10357823.2025.2450039.

This research explores why American Christians frequently harbor a deep-seated distrust toward atheists. Across four distinct studies, the authors identify a dual-pathway model consisting of internal and external factors that fuel this prejudice. Christians often view atheists as lacking an internal moral compass, specifically the "individualizing" foundations that prioritize compassion and the prevention of harm. Simultaneously, distrust is driven by an external route, where religious individuals believe that a watchful God is necessary to enforce ethical behavior through divine surveillance. The findings suggest that atheists are stereotyped as morally deficient because they are perceived to operate without both personal altruistic values and the accountability of a higher power. Consequently, these moral stereotypes play a more significant role in shaping social tension than simple theological disagreements.

Citation: Wormley, Alexandra S., Anna Stefaniak, Samantha Hollingshead, and Michael J. A. Wohl. n.d. “A Dual Route to Distrust of Atheists: Perceiving Atheists to Lack Individualizing Moral Foundations and an External Moralizing Agent Heightens Christians’ Distrust.” Group Processes & Intergroup Relations. doi:10.1177/13684302261438589.

This research paper investigates the nature and diversity of secular worldviews by analyzing the beliefs of nearly 1,000 nonreligious individuals across 10 different countries. Rather than treating nonbelief as a mere absence of faith, the study uses an open-ended, data-driven approach to identify what these individuals actually value. The findings reveal that secular perspectives often center on science, humanism, and critical skepticism, while also emphasizing equality and natural laws. Statistical analysis identified three primary belief clusters: scientific worldviews, humanist worldviews, and nature-focused worldviews. These results suggest that while secularism varies by cultural context, it consistently provides a structured framework for understanding reality and morality. Ultimately, the study demonstrates that nonreligious worldviews are as complex and meaningful as traditional religious systems.

van Mulukom, V., Turpin, H., Haimila, R., Purzycki, B. G., Bendixen, T., Kundtová Klocová, E., Řezníček, D., Coleman, T. J. III, Sevinç, K., Maraldi, E., Schjoedt, U., Rutjens, B. T., & Farias, M. (2023). What do nonreligious nonbelievers believe in? Secular worldviews around the world. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 15(1), 143–156. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000480

In this article, scholars Galen Watts and Sarah Wilkins-Laflamme propose a significant revision to the secularization paradigm by introducing the concept of a secular sacred canopy. While traditional theories suggest that modernization simply erodes religious authority, the authors argue that advanced secular societies have actually developed their own cohesive cultural system rooted in scientific empiricism, naturalism, and romantic liberalism. This new framework shifts the analytical focus from individual beliefs to the institutionalized public scripts that grant moral and epistemic legitimacy in the modern West. By viewing secularism as a robust symbolic universe rather than a mere absence of religion, the researchers provide fresh explanations for the growth of nonreligion, the rise of individualized spirituality, and the emergence of right-wing populism. Ultimately, the text demonstrates that late-stage secularization involves a profound cultural transformation where secular ideals now function as the primary, taken-for-granted reality.

Citation: Watts, Galen, and Sarah Wilkins-Laflamme. 2026. “The Secular Sacred Canopy: A Paradigm Revision in the Study of Secularization.” Sociological Theory 07352751261427015. doi:10.1177/07352751261427015.