A promising alternative to the shortage of organs is to actually print new ones with the cells of the host. While this application is still far from available, it gives a promise of a time when we can fix our bodies without current limits and without sacrificing pigs. Maybe this would mean very long lives, almost immortality. But, how far should we push our lifespan?

Some references: 

P. Sreekala, M. Suresh, S. Lakshmi Priyadarsini, 3D organ printing: Review on operational challenges and constraints, Materials Today: Proceedings, Volume 33, Part 7, 2020, Pages 4703-4707, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.08.349.

Qian Yan, Hanhua Dong, Jin Su, Jianhua Han, Bo Song, Qingsong Wei, Yusheng Shi, A Review of 3D Printing Technology for Medical Applications, Engineering, Volume 4, Issue 5, 2018, Pages 729-742, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eng.2018.07.021.

Critical organ failure can only be solved by organ transplants. However, the supply of organs is far lower than the demand, and immunological reactions make everything more difficult. An alternative to this problem is to grow pigs whose organs can be transplanted into humans, a process called xenotransplantation. Both genetically engineered pigs and human-pig chimeras could potentially be used as organ donors. However, their use is surrounded by doubts and ethical concerns. Would you accept a heart grown in a pig?

Some References: 

Xenotransplantation Review

Video on xenotransplantation

BBC article on human-pig chimeras

In this episode we explore different classifications of models and dicuss problems such as the problem of accuracy (what does it mean for a model to be accurate and is it always something to strive for?), the problem of style (what are the different ways of representing?), and the problem of ontology (what types of things are models).  We also discuss idealizations (omissions or distortions that make a model more explanatory or that allow it to be used mathematically) and the role it plays in scientific modelling. 

Some references:

• Frigg, Roman and James Nguyen, 2016, “The Fiction View of Models Reloaded”, The Monist, 99(3): 225–42.

• Weisberg, Michael, 20072013, Simulation and Similarity: Using Models to Understand the World, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

In this episode we discuss the problem of representation: in virtue of what does something represent something else? A plausible account should be able to provide understanding of how representation operates.  We explore the classical accounts of similarity and structuralism, as well as their shortcomings using the example of DNA. 

Some references:

• Bueno, Otávio, 1997, “Empirical Adequacy: A Partial Structure Approach”, Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science, 28(4): 585–610. doi:10.1016/S0039-3681(97)00012-5

In this episode we explore the debate on scientific modelling. Models are central to scientific practice and are often the gateway to understanding phenomena. What does it mean for a model to represent something in the world? Is there an appropriate way to delineate scientific and non-scientific models? Are some models better than others? Tune in to find out the answer to these and many more questions.

Some references:

• Frigg, R., & Nguyen, J. (2016). Scientific representation. In Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy.

A gene drive is a way to cheat the way evolution usually works, it's a piece of DNA that does not care about Mendelian rules. They happen in nature, but we can also engineer them. Gene drives are a very powerful technique, with a huge potential impact in terms of global health, but with great power comes great responsibility, and human society will have to regulate its use to ensure that the world can benefit from them. 

Some references: 

News Article from Nature

New York Times Article

Alphey LS, Crisanti A, Fil F et al. Standardizing the definition of gene drive. PNAS 2020;117:30864–7.

Champer J, Buchman A, Akbari OS. Cheating evolution : engineering gene drives to manipulate the fate of wild populations. Nat Publ Gr 2016;17:146–59.

Church GM. Concerning RNA-guided gene drives for the alteration of wild populations. Elife 2014;3:1–21.

Courtier-Orgogozo V, Morizot B, Boëte C. Agricultural pest control with CRISPR- based gene drive : time for public debate. EMBO Rep 2017;18:878–80.

Esvelt KM, Gemmell NJ. Conservation demands safe gene drive. PLoS Biol 2017;15:1–8.

There are already genetically modified mosquitos that could be used to eradicate malaria. However, as their use is based on their liberation in ecosystems, there are concerns on how will these mosquitos affect them. These concerns arise from the idea that ecosystem relations are unpredictable, and that they are very difficult to engineer. But difficult is not impossible, and with time we will learn how to engineer ecosystems. 

Some references: 

BBC Article on genetically modified mosquitos being released in Florida

The company behind the release of mosquitos in Florida

Position of WHO on genetically modified mosquitos

Spanish blog-post on genetically modified mosquitos

The Guardian article on the failed dutch rewilding experiment

New York Times article on the failed Biosphere experiments

Scientific article on repopulation of forests using flammable pines

Article with information on the governance, regulation, and public engagement on genetically modified mosquitos

Cloning can help bring genetic diversity to animal populations at risk of extinction, but there are also some cases in which it could be used to bring back dead species. Even if cloning is not possible, genetic engineering can help bring back extinct species whose genome has been sequenced. How can we do this? How far are we? And ultimately, should we bring extinct species back to life?

Some references: 

• Revive & Restore webpage

Humans can be cloned, the technology is already out there. But even if a clone with an identical genome has been created, does this mean we can clone individuals? Individuals are characterized by their identity, but this identity seems impossible to clone. But first, we should ask, what is human identity?

Some references:

Tachibana M, Amato P, Sparman M, et al (2013) Human embryonic stem cells derived by somatic cell nuclear transfer. Cell 153:1228–1238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2013.05.006

Reasons and Persons by Derek Parfit (1984) Read here

Katerina V.-A. Johnson, Gut microbiome composition and diversity are related to human personality traits, Human Microbiome Journal, Volume 15, 2020, 100069, ISSN 2452-2317, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humic.2019.100069.

Dog cloning is nowadays possible, and although expensive, it has allowed some companies to invest in this ethically dubious business. How are dogs cloned? How similar are dogs cloned? What are the problems associated to dog cloning? Would you clone your dog? 

Some references: 

The New Yorker Times article about Barbara Streisand

Vanity Fair article about dog cloning businesses

Verma, G., Arora, J. S., Sethi, R. S., Mukhopadhyay, C. S., & Verma, R. (2015). Handmade cloning: recent advances, potential and pitfalls. Journal of animal science and biotechnology, 6, 43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40104-015-0043-y

Lee, SH, Oh, HJ, Kim, MJ, et al. Dog cloning—no longer science fiction. Reprod Dom Anim. 2018; 53(Suppl. 3): 133– 138. https://doi.org/10.1111/rda.13358