During the post-World War II era, America's suburban developments symbolized opportunity and exclusion. These developments became symbols of the postwar American dream, where homeownership and suburban living were within reach for millions of Americans—though not for everyone. These segregation policies were enforced not through written covenants but by the developer’s explicit refusal to sell homes to African Americans. This practice was emblematic of the larger issue of housing discrimination that permeated American society during this period. 

The Freedmen’s Bureau was established on March 3, 1865. It was officially known as the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands. Congress created it during the closing months of the American Civil War to assist formerly enslaved African Americans and other war refugees in the Southern states. 

 They encountered significant opposition, primarily from President Andrew Johnson and subsequent administrations. This opposition severely hindered the Bureau’s mission to provide support and protection for African Americans during the turbulent Reconstruction era.