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Good morning listeners! This is Matthew Merrone, an undergraduate student at Penn State Brandywine, and I am here today to introduce this new episode of the PAESTA Podcast Series – How do salmon know where to return to spawn?

A growing mystery for scientists revolves around the idea of salmon being able to know exactly how to return to their home stream to spawn. Salmon are a very unique type of fish that are born in a stream and eventually venture off into the vast oceans before coming home to give birth. For something that seems so far-fetched, salmon are somehow able to migrate thousands of miles into the open ocean for years at a time, and then they miraculously swim all the way home to the stream they were hatched in.  For years, scientists have speculated many different possible explanations for this odd phenomenon. Now, they may have finally broken the code to understanding how the salmon manage to do such a difficult task.

One of the tools that salmon use to migrate back to their home stream is their brains. [1] Experiments and research taken through the Institute of Creation Research state that salmon remember the water and its components while traveling downstream into the ocean. They claim that the fish have a flexible system for learning olfactory waypoints at appropriate time and places. [2] With the use of their brains, salmon are able to comprehend important oceanic factors including the ocean currents, length of the days, amount of sun exposure, water salinity, and the temperatures of the waters. These unique abilities allow the salmon to be able to recognize the water in which they are swimming in and navigate with the conditions of the ocean on their journey making it easier to migrate home.

Beyond their excessive use of their brains, scientists knew that salmon had a keen sense of smell that aided them in finding their way to their original stream. [2] It was observed that salmon use their sense of smell to imprint on their hatching stream for future reference. These fish imprint on the odor of the stream that they are hatched in and can remember that odor for the duration of their life. In an experiment, several salmon were moved from their home streams during their hatching periods. The scientists observed as the salmon migrated back into their home streams, concluding the importance of the fish’s ability to imprint early on in its life. This experiment later led to the discovery that salmon imprint at other important time periods of their lives like when the emerge from their gravel nets. [3] A hatchery research center for salmon in Oregon spent time digging their own fake streams for research. What they did was they took water from the salmon’s home stream and put it upstream while using regular water for the downstream. What they observed was that the salmon were using pheromones to sense their water. Almost all of the salmon were found migrating upstream to the water at which they were born into. The Oregon hatchery then confirmed that salmon’s sense plays a big role in the migrating process, and they wanted to repeat the experiment several more times with stronger sensing water. 

The newest discovery that scientists have made referring to the ability for salmon to migrate to their home stream correlates to the Earth’s magnetic fields. [4] A team of researchers from the National Science Foundation put together data from patterns in salmon migration out of the Fraser River in British Columbia, Canada for the last 56 years. Coming into the experiment, the scientists knew that Earth’s magnetic field changes each year and it is weakened with proximity to the equator and the Earth’s poles.  Vancouver Island sits at the mouth of the Fraser River, and blocks the salmon from entering their home stream. The scientists were able to predict the salmon’s route by observing the strength of the magnetic fields around the island. They determined that the salmon would take the route that most likely matched the magnetic fields of the Fraser River in the years that those fish were hatched there. The salmon did indeed take the route that the scientists predicted they would, confirming that they use the magnetic fields of the Earth to help navigate back into their home streams. Furthermore, these researchers were also able to identify that the salmon are not only imprinting on the odor and chemical properties of the water they were born into, but these fish are also imprinting of the earth’s magnetic field and later using it to sense which direction home is.

So, to focus on the underlying question of how salmon know where to migrate, we can confirm that it is a combination of three important aspects of their life. The use of their complex brain allows the salmon to understand complex waypoints through their journey while examining the conditions of the ocean and the sun. Their keen sense of smell allows them to imprint on the odor of the home stream and navigate through the ocean with that unique smell lingering in their mind to know where to go home. And finally, the use of the fish’s ability to map their way home after imprinting on the Earth’ magnetic field also helps them to make it home after a very long trip. The salmon is a magnificent fish, and it is very unique how they use different abilities to make their way back home again.

 

(This audio file was recorded by Matthew Merrone, undergraduate student, Penn State Brandywine, on November 9, 2016. References available in the attached transcript.)

 

 

https://www.paesta.org/podcast/how-do-salmon-know-where-return-spawn-paesta-podcast-series-episode-45

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Hello my name is Nick Malorgio and today I will be answering the question: what are the impacts of climate change on water resources?

On earth, ninety-eight percent of our water is salty and two percent is fresh water. Seventy percent of fresh water is snow, and the remaining thirty percent is ground water [1]. Climate change has negatively impacted the sparse amount of fresh water on Earth. It is important to discuss the key factors that contribute to climate change and global warming as we work to preserve the world’s fresh water.

Water makes up over three-quarters of Earth so 2% of that sounds like a significant amount of fresh water… So why are we so worried about preserving it? Well, water scarcity is actually a major problem caused by climate change. As of right now 1.6 billion people live with water scarcity and by the year 2025 this is expected to increase to 2.8 billion people.

As the earth’s temperature continues to rise it causes a negative impact on our fresh water sources. Glaciers are one of the important sources of fresh water that many people depend on in the world. As global temperatures continue to rise, these glaciers are melting away with some of them predicted to vanish within this century [2]. Regions that use these glaciers as sources of fresh water will need to seek new fresh water because once these glaciers are gone they cannot be restored.

Climate change is also causing our water cycle to act differently than in the past. Scientists now agree that these changes are going to affect water vapor, concentrations, clouds, precipitation patterns, and runoff stream flow patterns [3]. If the lower portion of the atmosphere continues to become warmer, the evaporation rate will increase. The change will cause certain areas to dry out and others to have too much rainfall. These warmer climates cause more water to evaporate from the land and oceans. The excessive rainfall and snow melting will result in fewer places to store the water as it exceeds its holding capacity. This will cause flooding and the additional fresh water will run off into our oceans becoming new salt water. The runoff also makes the ocean level rise; this creates more problems as the rising level makes the salt water drive into freshwater aquifers. At this point, in order to make the water usable in the aquifers we would to need to move it and then treat it. This increased ocean level is also forcing pollutants and waste to wash into our water. This makes the water be unusable because it is not safe [4]. The change in the water cycle is going to cause more droughts to occur and for longer periods of time. The Western side of the United States is having the worst droughts in history. With water already being limited in the west, the fast growing population is making the demand for water to increase.

Energy is another thing being affected because of the impacts on water. The north western part of the United States also relies on water to create energy through hydropower. However due to the water flow becoming lower it is reducing the amount of energy that can be produced. The weaker water flow also makes it harder to cool fossil fuels and nuclear power plants. Energy being produced from different ways is making it worse as the constant burning of coals, gas, and fossil fuels are actually accelerating the climate change to become worse.

Finally, due to climate change, countries such as Turkey, Israel, and Morocco will be greatly affected, with more than fifty percent of their water sources vanishing [5]. These are countries where agriculture is popular and farmers will have a hard time farming with the climate change. The increased amount of rainfall is causing crops to be damaged from the floods and this increases soil erosion. Areas that are already effected by droughts will be faced with even less water resulting in crops and livestock dying.

As we can see, climate change will not have the same effect on all the regions of the world but it will affect each region in some kind of way. Once again my name is Nick Malorgio and thank you for tuning in.

 

(This audio file was recorded by Nick Malorgio, undergraduate student, Penn State Brandywine, in November 2016. References available in the attached transcript.)

 

https://www.paesta.org/podcast/what-are-impacts-climate-change-water-resources-paesta-podcast-series-episode-44

You Asked, We Answered!

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Hello, on today’s episode of the PAESTA Podcast Series, we’ll be talking about whether almonds really take too much water to be worth growing, especially during a water shortage. This is a common misconception that we hopefully can clear up. The almond industry brings in an astounding 11 billion dollars annually since the popularity of almonds has gone up over the past couple years because of  almonds’  many health benefits. California supplies about 80% of the United States almonds, and dedicates 10%, or 80 million gallons, of its state’s water to grow the nut. To grow one almond  requires 1.1 gallons of water, and to grow a pound takes 1,900 gal/ lb[1]. The crazy thing about that is that walnuts, hazelnuts, pistachios, and cashews all use roughly the same amount of water to grow as well, but it is the almond which is in such high demand at this time. Currently, California is in the midst of a 5 year drought that has everyone looking at the nut industry to blame. Because people are buying more almonds and nuts in general, farmers are shifting towards growing more of them, which can lead to pointing the blame at them for the water crisis in California. And because of the drought, the price per pound of almonds has gone way up to $6 a pound, as opposed to $2 a pound back in 2010 [2]. This gives farmers even more incentive to grow them, even with the water crisis going on.

Recently, a group of farmers were invited to talk on NPR about California’s drought and they had an interesting take on the situation. One farmer said that almonds really aren't any more thirsty than any of his other crops and shook his head when hearing that one almonds takes a gallon to produce. This same farmer then goes on to say that they've reduced the amount of water almonds require by 33% [3]. Another farmer then adds that almond trees require 10% of California's water supply and thinks that it “is a lot to devote to just one crop” but that they are working on reducing that number.

The LA Times wrote an article about growing almonds and they also had a different take on them by saying  it isn’t as big of a problem as people are making it out to be. It states that although almonds trees use a lot of water to grow, these trees can be ground up and used as biomass fuel for cogeneration plants, essentially helping make electricity. It also says that almond farmers are working to reduce the amount of water that each plant consumes with techniques like drip irrigation. Farmers in this article also defend the almond by saying, “People need to understand that everything you eat takes water”. This same farmer goes on to say that "Now, we're feeling like a scapegoat for over 30 years of water mismanagement in this state” because of how much criticism her farm and other almond farmers are taking. This article concludes with a great point that “ the water it takes to grow any vegetable, fruit or nut is a mere fraction of what is required to raise animal protein” and goes on to say “It takes more than 106 gallons of water, experts say, to produce one ounce of beef”, so just imagine how much water a whole herd of cattle would use![4]

So to answer the question, “How much water does it really take to grow almonds?,” I can conclude that the answer is widely debated between farmers and the media. On one hand, farmers believe that they don't use substantially the amount of water that the media thinks they do. Farmers all over agree that although almonds use a more than an average amount of water, they want the public to remember that all crops use water to grow. They also completely disagree that one almond takes 1.1 gallons of water to grow and are appalled to think people would believe that. On the other hand, there are countless articles that stand behind the findings of almonds and other nuts using too much water. If I had to chose who to believe, I would stick with the farmers since they are dealing with the almonds first hand, and not the media, who may have never stepped foot on an almond farm or any farm for that matter. Thank you for joining me on today’s episode of the PAESTA Podcast Series.

 

(This audio file was recorded by Sam Kogon, undergraduate student, Penn State Brandywine, on November 10, 2016. References available in the attached transcript.)

 

https://www.paesta.org/podcast/how-much-water-does-it-really-take-grow-almonds-paesta-podcast-series-episode-43

You Asked, We Answered!

Transcript of the podcast

Hello, my name is Vipul Kapoor and I will be hosting this podcast. Today, we will discuss the differences between weather and climate. Our main focus will be the primary differences. Then we will go in depth on how each are studied and how they affect the world. To put it simply, the main difference between weather and climate is the measurement of time. [1] Weather affects a given area and contributes to shaping the Earth's features, while climate helps scientists to determine how the Earth will change—and has changed—over a long period of time. [2] Now, as we all know, weather is always changing. A period of time in which we measure weather can be as little as 5 minutes to as long as weeks. Throughout this time, there are many changes in weather. In the span of just 10 days, weather goes through big changes. From thunderstorms to heavy rain to heat waves. [3] These are conditions in the atmosphere at a given time and place; however, they only last for a short period of time.

It is very important to understand that weather and climate are not the same. We define climate as the long-term trends of the weather, while weather is just what's happening now. [4] Weather and climate each have separate elements used by scientists all over the world. [5] The main elements for weather are temperature and climate, while the main elements for climate are latitude, wind, ocean currents, proximity to coastlines, and altitude. [6] Everyday Americans like you and me tend to care and know more about the weather rather than the climate. After all, we use the weather forecasts to determine our plans and even what to wear. A big difference between weather and climate are how they are predicted. Weather forecasts try to answer questions such as, how much will it rain tomorrow, or, how cold will it be tomorrow. [7] The forecasts are based on models, incorporating observations of air pressure, humidity, temperature, and wind to give the best estimates of future weather conditions. These forecasts tend to be short-term. On the other hand, climate predictions take a much longer-term view. Climate predictions attempt to answer questions like, how much warmer will the Earth be 50 years from now? or how much will the sea level rise in the next 10 years? Such predictions are made using global climate models.

Now, although we do not pay much attention to climate, it is still a very important topic to study. Studying climate is crucial as it affects people around the world. Studying climate gives us information about rising global temperatures and how they raise sea levels, or how long term changes in precipitation have detrimental effects on water supply and crop yields. [8] Climate can also have a big effect on humans and other animals. Change in climate can cause deserts to expand into rangelands and National Parks and Forests to be altered, leaving animals in an unknown environment. These changes can also cause some animals to go extinct.

The difference in essence comes down to climate is what you expect, while weather is what you get. When compared to weather, climate is fairly easy to model.  Experts can model physical principles of average temperature and rainfall in a fair amount of detail. On the other hand, weather changes quickly and chaotically, but still exists within a range of expected values. Climate and weather both differ around the planet, and are principally controlled by the energy from the sun. [9]

Climatology is the study of climate characteristics in addition to the more complex behavior of the atmosphere which is heavily influenced by the land, oceans, and chemical reactions. [10] Scientists then investigate records to identify and find patterns of normal and extreme conditions, as well as to predict whether storm activity is likely to increase. Overall, understanding climate helps us to describe the long-term average weather conditions over a time period. These conditions explained can range anywhere from temperature to precipitation to humidity.

To recap what we learned in this podcast, weather and climate are similar and different at the same time. Weather is the study of now while climate is how the weather will be in a long-term view. We also learned about why we should learn and care more about studying climate, as it provides crucial information about how the Earth will change in the future and how it affects our everyday lives. There are tons of resources available to help aid anyone about weather and climate and why they are so important to understand and study. I hope this information was helpful and fun to learn/ Thank you for listening, this is Vipul Kapoor signing off, stay tuned until next time!

 

(This audio file was recorded by Vipul Kapoor, undergraduate student, Penn State Brandywine, on November 11, 2016. References available in the attached transcript.)

 

https://www.paesta.org/podcast/what-are-differences-between-weather-and-climate-paesta-podcast-series-episode-42

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Hello my name is Laura Delgadillo, I am a student at Penn State Brandywine and today I’d like to answer the question: Why did the water in the Olympic pools in Rio this past summer turned green? The issue started because [1] a local pool maintenance worker applied hydrogen peroxide to the pool when it already had chlorine. Hydrogen peroxide is good for cleaning pools but not when it is combined with chlorine. It was a chemical misbalance. [2] Hydrogen peroxide was dropped into the pools by the contractor and hydrogen peroxide undoes what chlorine is supposed to do which is kill germs and keep the water clean. Nonetheless, since the water had to be clean for synchronized swimmers to be able to see each other under water, for water polo players, and for divers, the solution was to drain both pools off of all their water and refill them with clean water from the practice pools in time for these events to be able to happen.

Now after the public saw and heard what was happening in Rio, there were people who argued that the pools’ dirty water was due to the fact that all water in Rio is unclean. [3] The problem of contaminated waters during the Rio Olympics was not only a problem in the swimming pools but in the sewage of the city, and country as a whole, and the outlets for all the water waste of the city, which are the rivers in Rio. The fact that the waste water goes to the rivers of Rio means the outdoor swimmers and rowers were at risk of contracting diseases from these waters. The waste from the poor favelas in Rio often does not get picked up by the government and it ends up in the rivers. If the government of a country cannot keep the rivers of its cities clean, then it would be easy for swimming pool managers at the Rio Olympics to neglect the treatment of the swimming pools and not apply the proper amount of chemicals into the competition pools. After I did a little more research however, I found an opposing viewpoint on a Forbes article about how the chemical misbalance everyone had been talking about had nothing to do with the water turning green. [4] The hydrogen peroxide and chlorine combination had nothing to do with the water turning green. The actual cause of it was copper(II) sulfate, a blue crystal that is used in tiny quantities to control the growth of green algae in large public pools and in municipal water supplies. It was added to the pool water; it dissolves quickly and it is to prevent algae from growing. It is toxic to algae, fish and other aquatic life; it can also be toxic to humans in large amounts. Another chemical reaction, which is the copper(II) sulfate dissolved in water that has to do with a poisonous stinky gas, which could be smelled from the pool water. This is how that chemical reaction works; the copper ions combine with four chlorine ions in the water, creating a copper(II) tetrachloro complex, which is green, and if it’s present in high enough concentrations, it turns the water green. The sulfate ions are reduced to hydrogen sulfide, a poisonous stinky gas, which is the source of the rotten egg smell associated with raw sewage smell people claimed was in the air. If the aquatic center for the Rio Olympics had a smell of raw sewage, or to vulgarly describe it: a smell of farts, then the opposing viewpoint seems to be the answer to the question we asked ourselves in the beginning.

These two reasons seemed like they both were the right answer, in one hand there are managers and pool supervisors saying that chemistry is not an exact science and it could have happened to anyone and the chemical misbalance of hydrogen peroxide being mixed in with chlorine was the reason for the green water. In the other hand there is a viewpoint in a Forbes article that talks about another chemical misbalance but that has to do with copper sulfate. Both seem to be human error that could have been avoided by having better prepared facilities such as The Cube in China which was used during the 2008 Beijing Olympics. [5] developed an ozone technology that made it easier to keep the swimming pools clean. The challenge ProMinent faced was to ensure pure water quality as required by the Olympic Committee for all six event pools. They programmed a logic controller, display panel for monitoring with an operator control panel. This allowed the pool waters to be monitored and get treated as needed.

Better preparing for such events would have prevented this incident from happening. Even though it was not harmless, it was a very odd thing to watch on television. This issue raised many questions about the effectiveness of pool managers to keep Olympic pools clean during such important events and I think it will help countries in the future better prepare to host the Olympics.

 

(This audio file was recorded by Laura Delgadillo, undergraduate student, Penn State Brandywine, on November 14, 2016. References available in the attached transcript.)

 

https://www.paesta.org/podcast/why-did-water-rio-olympics-turn-green-paesta-podcast-series-episode-41

You Asked, We Answered!

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Hello my name is Allysa and I am a student at Penn State Brandywine. Today I will be answering the question “What are the mental impacts of weather and climate disaster?”. First off, weather and climate disasters are like natural disasters. They are major adverse events resulting from a natural process of the earth and can include floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, and natural processes of the earth.  We hear about natural disasters often on the news or weather channels where they try to predict when a storm or something of the sort is coming our way and warn us, the people, to evacuate if they feel it’s going to really bad. Some natural disasters that made big news include The tsunami in Thailand in 2004 and hurricane Katrina that hit New Orleans hard in 2005.

Natural disasters are something we can’t control but that can come quickly and shake our lives forever. People who are involved have most likely seen, experienced, and lost things that are unimaginable to us. First, people can experience shock immediately after. This reaction can be a combination of shock and denial. [1] This can last for a bit of time, maybe days or weeks. After that people usually have feelings of insecurity. Home is supposed to be a safe place and when that’s taken from you, it is hard to feel secure again. Some things that come from this feeling of insecurity are nightmares, anxiety, or extreme preparation in fear for the next storm. [2] With this anxiety and stress, posttraumatic stress disorder or PTSD can follow. PTSD is a mental health condition that’s triggered by a terrifying event. The symptoms include flashbacks, nightmares, and severe anxiety. [3] Other long-term issues that can come from these events are depression, issues with eating and obsessive compulsive disorder also known as OCD.

Those whose homes were affected are not the only ones subject to these possible aftermath symptoms. It has been reported that many people who help clean up on scene or first responders experience many of these psychological symptoms as well. [4] A lot of first responders say that they can be haunted from the wounded people they saw and saved as well as all of those that they were unable to save. [5] Even though they were not there for the actual event, they’re the ones that come in right after it and can see some of the worst of it.

So, we know how natural disasters can affect people, their homes, communities, and families. However it can also affect their relationships with people. Many of those who are victims of an event like this suffer with relationships at school, work, friendships, marriage, or struggle as a parent. [2] With this usually comes distrust, irritability, conflict, withdrawal, isolation, feelings of rejection or abandonment, judgment, or being over controlling. [6]

Although all of these things mentioned are normal reactions to extreme stress like a natural disaster,  there are times when those who are affected may need to seek help if certain symptoms do not go away. As we mentioned before, shock and disbelief are normal. People may have a hard time accepting the reality of what happened.  There are ways to help reduce these feelings like staying away from media exposure and avoiding distressing images. [4] Watching these things can bring memories back that you’re trying to avoid.

Another suggestion is to accept your feelings by mourning the losses and not forcing the healing process. [2] It may take a long time but by accepting your emotions it is easier to move on and reconnect with uncomfortable emotions with little or no stress and anxiety.  It is also encouraged for people to reach out to others because, like I mentioned, it is easy to withdrawal from people after an event like this.

If people surround themselves around others, especially those who have experienced the same event, you can work together to get through the problem and the results can be extremely positive. In fact, victims of Hurricane Katrina reported that the sense of community that was found in the aftermath of the hurricane was unbelievable. [7] They said it restored their faith and lifted their spirits having everyone work together to rebuild their homes and lives.

Shifting gears here, I wanted to talk a little more about climate change and how it affects people. Something that has been talked about more often now than ever is seasonal depression or seasonal affective disorder also known as SAD. Seasonal affective disorder is a mood disorder that affects an individual at the same time every year. For most, it occurs around September or October then the weather gets cooler and lasts until April or May. Between 60% and 90% of those who have this disorder, are women.  Woman ages 15 to 55 are the most likely to develop seasonal depression. Interestingly enough, although people think that this disorder is based off of the temperature of the seasons, it really has to do with the sunlight, or lac there of. A new idea of light therapy has become popular in treating this disorder and has shown between a 50 and 80 percent chance of remission. [8]

In conclusion, natural disasters have both short term and long term affects on people. They do affect everyone differently depending on how they handle stress and the person’s role they played in the event. There are warning signs to look for in victims of natural disasters. If you or someone you know has been through a traumatic event like this, and you think they need further help, there are many support groups around as well as counseling available.

So that’s it for the question “what are the mental impacts of weather and climate disaster”. I hope you enjoyed and thanks for listening.

 

(This audio file was recorded by Alyssa Nuernberg, undergraduate student, Penn State Brandywine, on November 9, 2016. References available in the attached transcript.)

 

https://www.paesta.org/podcast/what-are-mental-impacts-weather-and-climate-disasters-paesta-podcast-series-episode-40

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Hi, my name is John Miller, I’m a senior at Penn State Brandywine and I will be your host of this podcast.  Today’s topic is the impacts on water related to wildfire.  For those of you who aren’t familiar, wildfire is another term for forest fire.  Wildfire can have significant effects on water quality, from sediment loads to chemical reactions.  In today’s podcast, we will explore these impacts in detail.

Erosion rates dynamically increase as a result of wildfire.  Due to the increased erosion, high sediment loads and turbidity can be observed. [1] Sediment loads, in large amounts increase processing costs of water treatment facilities.  In severe cases, such as Colorado’s Buffalo Creek wildfire, sediment can even shut the facilities down entirely. [1] Sediment containing phosphorus also promotes plant growth when found in high concentrations.  This can reduce the amount of dissolved oxygen in the watershed, impacting the local wildlife. [2]

Turbidity refers to the level of clarity or how clear the water is.  Turbidity promotes algae blooms which, like phosphorus, can also reduce oxygen levels in the water. [3] Turbidity is measured in nephelometric turbidity units (NTU) and an acceptable level for entering a water treatment facility is anything under 20 NTU. [4] Aside from being aesthetically unappealing, turbidity not removed from drinking water can promote growth of pathogens increasing the risk of waterborne disease. [5]

Wildfire affects water chemistry in various ways.  PH measures the acidity or alkalinity of the water.  A normal PH for tap water and freshwater aquariums is a value of 7.0.  PH spikes can be observed as a result of an overload of sediment into the watershed.  PH tends to spike initially after a wildfire and heavy storms, then stabilizes over time.  [6] Ash deposited by runoff can increase the alkalinity in the watershed [7], while metal minerals can act as “Lewis acids” [6] increasing the water’s acidity. 

Another chemical imbalance caused by wildfire is increased levels of nitrogen.  Nitrogen comes in several forms and the primary forms deposited into watersheds following a burn are ammonium and dissolved organic carbon. [7] Dissolved organic carbon and nitrates are removed from the water only by means of microbial activity; also, known as beneficial bacteria. [3] Nitrites and nitrates are a byproduct of the microbial activity consuming ammonium. [3] The ammonium is the result of nitrogen volatizing.  A study on watersheds in Southern California showed nitrate levels increasing by as much as 550% under post wildfire conditions. [7] To put this into perspective, many of you may own an aquarium or know someone that does.  Nitrate levels for a healthy aquarium should never exceed 40ppm.  An increase of 550% would show levels as high as 220ppm and would certainly result in the loss of your aquatic friends.

Phosphorus is another chemical effect that can be observed following a wildfire.  Phosphorus levels increase primarily due to ash deposited into the surface water following a wildfire. [3] Phosphorus tends to bind to soil and, therefore, increases levels in the watershed as runoff occurs.  Phosphorus also promotes algae blooms, which can have a leaching effect on the dissolved oxygen in the water. [3] Additionally, phosphorus based fire retardants can have adverse effects on the watershed when used to extinguish wildfire. [2] Aside from algae blooms, phosphorus can pose health threats to humans when found in drinking water.  The leaching effect of oxygen can lower oxygen levels in the blood stream.  Due to trace amounts of iron that come along with phosphorus, it is possible to corrode copper piping in our water delivery systems. [8]

Furthermore, burning soil produces amino acids which lead to elevated levels of ammonia immediately following a wildfire. [5] Wildfire can cause the top-level soil to become hydrophobic, preventing water from permeating. [2] Due to a lack of infiltration, runoff levels may increase by as much as 2,350%! [1] High-intensity fire can also increase the erosion rate of soil, which in turn increases the sediment load delivered to the watershed. [6] Runoff depositing ash into the watershed, raising PH values, facilitates dispersion of the soil’s aggregates. [9]

Prescribed burns are fires that are intentional and controlled.  These controlled burns can reduce the risk of extreme wildfire. [10] Proper burn plans must be in place prior to a prescribed burn.  Characteristics of a proper plan include considerations of temperature, wind, moisture and humidity and smoke dispersion. [10] Watershed impacts may still be observed in terms of chemical and sedimentation, however, to much less a degree than wildfire impacts.

In conclusion, we can see there is a direct relation between wildfire and water quality.  By administering prescribed burns, we can effectively reduce the risk of forest fire and its damage to the environment.  For more information on wildfire and its impacts on water quality see the additional references and links provided in the transcript.  Thank you all for listening and may your passion for Earth science burn intensely.

 

(This audio file was recorded by John Miller, undergraduate student, Penn State Brandywine, on November 11, 2016. References available in the attached transcript.)

 

https://www.paesta.org/podcast/wildfire-impacts-water-quality-paesta-podcast-series-episode-39

You Asked, We Answered!

Transcript of the podcast

Hello, my name is Joseph Longobardi, an undergraduate student at Penn State Brandywine, and today we are going to talk about hydroelectric power. 

Many people have heard of hydroelectric power, but what is it and how does it work?  Hydroelectric power is a method of generating electricity using water.  Water flows passed a turbine, which is similar to a fan intended to be spun by water.   The turbine spins a metal shaft connected to a generator which is what actually generates the electricity.  The generator is connected to the electric mains to power homes and businesses in the area.  Think about those old crank flashlights for when the power goes out.  The flashlight doesn’t require batteries because it uses the spinning motion of the crank with a generator to generate electricity.  Hydroelectric power is very similar, it just uses water to turn a turbine on the generator instead of using a person to turn a crank on the generator.  Unfortunately, simply putting a turbine in some flowing water won’t be enough to drive the generator; some accommodations need to be made to make it work. The location of hydroelectric power plants will usually be determined by those accommodations.  In a typical construction of a hydroelectric power plant, a large river with a large drop in elevation will be dammed up. [1] A small channel at the bottom of the dam’s reservoir called a penstock will be drilled to the output of the dam with the plant’s turbine in between. [1] Because there is a huge mass of water in the reservoir, the gravity will force the water through the penstock at a high pressure, driving the turbine and then exiting out the other side of the dam.  [1]

If it sounds like hydroelectric power is some sort of new, innovative technology, it’s actually not.  Hydroelectric power has actually been around since the end of the 1800s. [2] The first hydroelectric plant was built in 1879 at Niagara Falls. [2] It was used to power the street lamps in the city of Niagara Falls. [2] Many more hydroelectric power plants have been built since then.  In fact, you might be getting some of your energy from hydroelectric right now!  Although many more plants have been built since then, hydroelectric power still only accounted for 2.6 percent of the United States’ energy generation in 2014. [3]

Hydroelectric power has some good advantages.  Because water is usually renewed through the water cycle, the power plant’s “fuel” so-to-speak is free.  Speaking of fuel, no fuel is burned in hydroelectric power generation, so there is minimal pollution.  After the plant is built, there is only very little maintenance costs required to keep the plant running. [3]

Unfortunately, hydroelectric power does have some disadvantages as well.  It does require a large up-front investment in the infrastructure like for the plant itself and the dam that is required to run the plant. [3] Also, the plant would be rendered useless in the event of a drought because of its dependency on water.  In addition, it can prevent fish from traveling through the now dammed up river and modify their habitat.  [3]

To conclude, hydroelectric power is a very capable form of power generation.  It has been around for a long time and has proved reliable.  Hydroelectric power has a lot of advantages but it also has some disadvantages as well.  Hydroelectric power plays a small but important role in our power generation. 

Once again, I’ve been Joseph Longobardi, undergraduate student at Penn State Brandywine talking about hydroelectric power.  Thanks a lot for listening today. 

 

(This audio file was recorded by Joseph Longobardi, undergraduate student, Penn State Brandywine, on November 11, 2016. References available in the attached transcript.)

 

https://www.paesta.org/podcast/what-hydroelectric-power-paesta-podcast-series-episode-38

You Asked, We Answered!

Transcript of the podcast

Hello, my name is Andrew Leake, and I’m going to ask you to do something for me. I want you to close your eyes as I take you five years into the past: the year 2011. Media paranoia ensues as a massive storm makes its way up the east coast of the United States like a lion stalking its prey, preparing to pounce. Your family is in a panic as this storm closes the gap to get to you ever so slowly, and precautions are being done to brace for the coming assault. Your home is now a bunker, and outside is unsafe. The storm has arrived, and its power is something no one could have prepared for. Winds strong enough to uproot trees have a never-ending reign, and raindrops hurl towards the planet’s surface like billions of miniature missiles launched a few million at a time. The battle cries of thunder and the explosions of lightning ensure this storm has no sympathy for life.

Suddenly, you hear another battle cry, one that is not familiar to you. Media coverage unveils that this is a new titanic storm of equal power to the one that was already present. The east coast has been turned into a massive cloud on the map, and a living torture towards the surface. Floods, outages, and devastation commence at an even more alarming pace.

After hours of torment and torture, you finally hear the end of the onslaught. You walk out of your house and see the carnage that was left over. Branches, water, and trash litter the streets and sidewalks. Trees are destroyed, power has gone out, and basements are flooded.

Now, open your eyes. This visualization was the reality that people faced in 2011. You may now be thinking “What kind of storms rampaged through the east coast?” “Was that much damage actually done?” The answer is simple; the titanic storms were known as Hurricane Irene and Tropical Storm Lee.

Hurricane Irene and Tropical Storm Lee had hit numerous states on the east coast, mainly Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Virginia, West Virginia, and even Washington, D.C. [1] In terms of Pennsylvania, Hurricane Irene and Tropical Storm Lee were the first major storms to hit the state in twenty-two years, with the last one being Hurricane Floyd in 1999. [2] As the storms hit the Eastern seaboard, winds had reached speeds of 115 miles per hour; rainfall had accumulated up to two feet high with severe flooding, and massive power outages left a couple million customers without power. [3] In Pennsylvania, 700,00-850,000 customers of FirstEnergy corporations, such as PECO, were without power, and three people died during this time. [4] As if the power outages and flood were not enough, all forms of public transit, such as buses and trains, were shut down for days until the flooding stopped. [5] Everything was shut down and destroyed by Hurricane Irene and Tropical Storm Lee.

Since the devastation of these two storms, places have taken precautions to combat future damage from equally powerful storms. Houses in West Pittston, Pennsylvania have actually been remodeled so they are supported on beams to prevent any water from the streets getting into the rooms. [6] The streets in this area gather too much water, and flooding becomes common there, so this support does help these families to not worry about property damage. In addition, a new form of grid has been developed to detect power outages and supply a limited source of power to the area until it can be fixed. [7] This development will alleviate the pressure of not having any power to use. With these advancements in specific being the most popular and effective as of right now, damages from any storm can be prevented, as a new gateway for even better technology in this field can be developed.

In summation, due to Hurricane Irene and Tropical Storm Lee, these innovations became a high priority to develop and create for the safety and insurance of citizens. As horrible as it is to say, Hurricane Irene and Tropical Storm Lee left a dangerous impression, and yet a needed impact on Pennsylvania and the country as a whole.

I charge you now to take this content into your future. Who knows? Maybe you will be the next person to prevent the next Hurricane Irene. That’s all for now; I’m Andrew Leake, and I thank you for listening to me today, and I hope you have a great rest of your day. Have a good one!

 

(This audio file was recorded by Andrew Leake, undergraduate student, Penn State Brandywine, in November 2016. References available in the attached transcript.)

 

https://www.paesta.org/podcast/how-did-hurricane-irene-and-tropical-storm-lee-impact-pennsylvania-2011-paesta-podcast

You Asked, We Answered!

Transcript of the podcast

Hello, my name is Chrissy and I am a Junior at Penn State Brandywine. I am here today to answer the following question: How do sinkholes form? Many people know what a sinkhole looks like, but not many people know how it actually forms. Sinkholes occur in many places, such as, Canada, the United States, and Europe. It is based on the land and what is underneath. Sinkholes can come in many shapes and sizes and there are actually different types. Some sinkholes get so big that they can swallow up a house or car. Sinkholes occur overtime rather than abruptly. In this podcast I am going to discuss many different characteristics of what a sinkhole is, what shapes and sizes a sinkhole can be, the different types of sinkholes, prone sinkhole areas, and mainly, how a sinkhole is formed.

There are a lot of different descriptions about how a sinkhole is characterized. I can start by saying a sinkhole can be summarized as an area where there isn’t any exterior drainage and if it rains, the rainfall travels under the earth’s surface. [1] A sinkhole can also be described as a bowl-shaped hole that constructs while the surface under the land sinks and then the surroundings pour out. [2] Some have different shapes. If you think about a sinkhole, it almost looks like a cereal bowl, but some are actually bowl shaped and some have walls that are upright and can make a personal waterhole. Sinkholes can vary in sizes too. Some can be over 100 feet deep and wide. [1]

Next, there are actually different types of sinkholes that include dissolution, cover- subsidence, and cover- collapse sinkholes. A dissolution sink hole is when the water from rain and the water from the exterior meet in between limestone, and then the soft carbonated rock moves towards the exterior and a little hole starts to appear. Cover- subsidence sinkholes occur over time, are tiny, and rare. [1] Also, with cover- subsidence sinkholes sand smothers the rock foundation and the sand flows into the rocks, resulting the ground to drop. [3] Cover- collapse sinkholes happen in clay because soil and clay are like best friends, but once the soil goes under, this process cannot be seen, and the land then falls. [2] Cover- collapse sinkholes are the most dangerous out of the three types because clay covers the rock foundation and eventually when the liquid starts to disappear, the clay and foundation start to disintegrate causing the land to unexpectedly cave-in. [3]

Furthermore, there are many sinkhole prone areas, such as karst areas. Karst can be described as areas with rocks similar to limestone that has become soft. Just about the Eastern part of the United States is considered vulnerable. Specifically Florida because Florida is mainly karst. [2] From what I heard and have read, Florida is known for having a lot of sinkholes and Florida residents are used to them. A sinkhole occurred in Florida that was about 21 meters wide and it swallowed up a swimming pool and multiple houses. There are many reasons why Florida has sinkholes. One of the reasons is because their limestone is really old. So old that it is causing the ground to collapse. The limestone did not have a chance to be flattened by pressure, which leads to erosion. [4] Sinkholes can form just about anywhere. A major sinkhole happened in Ottawa. Many buildings and shopping centers near the sinkhole had to be evacuated because gas lines and water lines exploded and were damaged. The reason this sinkhole happened is because Ottawa was established on land called Leda. This clay can be defined as “quick clay” and it is mainly known for being weak and unsafe. This sinkhole caused major damage causing peoples utilities to be shut off. [5]

Lastly, a sinkhole is formed in a karst area where the rock, specifically limestone, has a chance of being disintegrated by liquid. [6] When the rock starts to disintegrate, space can form underneath the surface. When the space underneath the surface becomes large, the ground eventually collapses and that is when a sinkhole is formed. [1]

Overall, sinkholes can be considered unpredicted and dangerous but only happen in some areas. I would not worry too much about them since a majority of them are considered uncommon. Having knowledge about sinkholes can be beneficial for a lot of people just in case a sinkhole starts to form or if someone is simply just interested in sinkholes. Before this podcast, I always wondered how sinkholes form and now I finally know. Anyway, sinkholes are unpredictable and it is hard to figure out when a sinkhole could actually happen since we tend not to know what is happening below our feet. I mean, is anyone ever aware of what happens below their feet? Probably not, but always take precaution wherever you go and always be aware of your surroundings. Especially when it rains because water plays a huge part in the formation of sinkholes. From what I discussed in this podcast, I hope you learned a lot about sinkholes and enjoyed listening to this podcast. Thank you.

 

(This audio file was recorded by Chrissy Gledhill, undergraduate student, Penn State Brandywine, on November 9, 2016. References available in the attached transcript.)

 

 

https://www.paesta.org/podcast/how-do-sinkholes-form-paesta-podcast-series-episode-36