Apply your knowledge to diagnose and interpret acid-base imbalances using arterial blood gas (ABG) values. Differentiate between respiratory and metabolic acidosis or alkalosis, and determine whether compensation has occurred.

Understand how the respiratory and urinary systems compensate for acid-base disturbances. Learn how the body responds to respiratory or metabolic acidosis and alkalosis, and the time course of each compensatory mechanism.

Learn the basics of pH regulation, including the roles of acids, bases, and buffers. Get introduced to the bicarbonate, phosphate, and protein buffer systems, and why maintaining a stable pH is essential for enzyme and cell function.

Discover how the cardiovascular, endocrine, and urinary systems respond to dehydration or hemorrhage to restore blood volume and pressure. Compare how the body responds to osmolar vs. isotonic disturbances.

Explore how aldosterone regulates potassium levels and how parathyroid hormone (PTH) maintains calcium balance. Learn the causes and effects of hyperkalemia, hypokalemia, hypercalcemia, and hypocalcemia, and why they matter for muscle and nerve function.

Understand how the body regulates osmolarity through osmoreceptors, ADH release, and thirst mechanisms. Explore how water gain and loss affect osmolarity and how the body restores balance during dehydration or fluid overload.

Break down how total body water is distributed between the intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF) compartments. Learn about solute concentrations, fluid movement, and the importance of maintaining fluid balance for homeostasis.

Explore how the sympathetic nervous system, RAAS, ADH, and natriuretic peptides regulate GFR in response to systemic blood pressure and volume changes, ensuring whole-body fluid and pressure homeostasis.

Understand how the kidneys regulate their own filtration rate using the myogenic mechanism and tubuloglomerular feedback, maintaining stable GFR despite changes in blood pressure.

Learn how GFR is calculated using Starling forces, how arteriole diameter affects filtration, and why GFR is a key measure of kidney function and fluid balance.