Dismissing the grievances brought to him earlier in his reign made sure the discontent the caliph faced would only grow. The sources diverge widely when it comes to these contentious and deeply consequential events, but ultimately Othman had to face the wrath of men who held the caliph solely responsible for all the worrying and confusing changes they were experiencing. The Umma had experienced great change since it was first united by the prophet, but the end of Othman’s reign will leave it with a permanent scar.

The quasi-political system devised by the Arabs to manage the community’s affairs was hastily put together and it mixed tribal norms and islamic ethics haphazardly. The pitfalls of the caliphate were numerous, and Omar’s many changes during his reign were aimed at addressing some of them. Othman’s reign was not marked with any such prophylactic foresight; his rule instead strained the authority of the caliph, one of the many undefined pitfalls of the caliphate as a political system. The tension between the tribal and islamic cultural forces acting on the Arabs begins to flare, and once invisible cracks within the Umma slide into view.

With the confusion of Omar’s assassination and succession behind them, the Arabs were now ready to welcome the reign of yet another of their prophet’s close companions. In this episode we’ll talk more about the new caliph, and take a tour of his many and growing domains.

Omar’s bold and sweeping policies defined the caliphate and gave it the tools it needed to evolve past its origins as a tribal confederation. While his predecessor had shied away from such decision making, the old Abu Bakr at least had the foresight to pick his successor. The second caliph neglected thinking about who might replace him until it was almost too late. At his tragic and abrupt end he did what he did best: he enacted a new policy to implement a traditional solution. Six chiefs of Quraysh were tasked with selecting one of them to be the next caliph.

We mentioned many of the accomplishments of Omar ibn il Khattab in our last episode, and in this one we continue our discussion of the second caliph's reign. There was no going back for the Arabs after their historic victories had altered their world irreversibly, and a strong leader was needed to manage this critical transformational period. We will focus on the bold decisions Omar made, and try to understand what may have motivated him to undertake such sweeping changes.

The reign of Abu Bakr lasted a little over two years, and he kept Omar close in order to prepare him for the role of caliph. But the leadership of the community Omar inherited came with the burden of waging two simultaneous wars against empires that had bordered the Arabs for as long as they they could remember. We very briefly discussed the Byzantine and Sassanid empires in the previous episode, and today we'll talk about the challenges they posed to the new caliph, and how he responded to them and other dangers to the Umma.

I would like to be the first to admit that this episode doesn't quite belong in this podcast. It's just that the Arabs will take down two ancient and powerful empires with a swiftness that beggars belief, and this is my attempt at explaining how such an unthinkable act could ever take place. In this episode we discuss the final war the two empires fought with one another, and highlight the state each found itself in before the Arabs emerged from the desert united.

The man chosen to lead the muslims after their prophet's death was his close friend, Abu Bakr. He thus became the world's first caliph, and was faced with the unenviable task of keeping all the peninsula's fiercely independent-minded tribes united. His short reign had many successes, ensuring him a vaulted position in Arab memory.

Succession can be a tricky issue, but succeeding a prophet is pretty much ensured to get thorny. The Umma barely had time to mourn its loss after the death of Mohammad; it immediately faced threats both from within and without. This made finding a new leader all the more pressing, and the haste with which some acted caused rifts in the community that proved tragically durable.

Before we can talk about the caliphs, we need to build on the context we established last time. The caliphs will rule over the community first united by Mohammad ibn Abdallah, of the Hashemite clan of the Quraysh, main tribe of the city of Mecca.