The History Express

June 2, 1953 marked Queen Elizabeth II's coronation and the official date that she formally became the reigning monarch of England.

Yet, in reality, Elizabeth had already been serving as the head of the British royal family for 16 months. Her father, King George VI, died at the age of 56 from coronary thrombosis on February 6, 1952. As next in line to the throne, Elizabeth, at just 25 years old, began taking on official duties, including running her first state opening of Parliament in November 1952.

On top of learning her new role as sovereign, the Queen had to navigate some personal politics within the walls of Buckingham Palace — especially when it came to her husband Prince Philip's revolutionary plan for her coronation.

Organizing an event fit for the Queen

The planning process for Elizabeth's coronation actually began when she was only 11 years old. Her Majesty's father made Elizabeth jot down a complete review of his own coronation at Westminster Abbey in May 1937 so she could understand all the elements involved.

“I thought it all very, very wonderful and I expect the Abbey did too,” wrote the future queen, according to Vanity Fair. “The arches and the beams at the top were covered in a sort of haze of wonder as Papa was crowned, at least I thought so.” A preteen Elizabeth continued to hilariously write that the service got "rather boring" at the end because "it was all prayers."

While Elizabeth's father may have had a coronation by the book, his daughter would not. In the months leading up to the event, Elizabeth entrusted Philip to be the chair of her coronation commission. In his new role, the Duke of Edinburgh immediately threw out a radical idea: he wanted the coronation to be televised for all of Britain to see.

At first, Elizabeth, the Queen Mother, and the British government were vehemently against Philip's unconventional suggestion. Not only had it never been done before (only the upper classes were deemed fit to witness such an event), but many felt that televising such an occasion might not be "right and proper." One of the biggest advocates for keeping the coronation private was Sir Winston Churchill. The BBC reports that the prime minister was "horrified" at the thought of using cameras inside the sacred Westminster Abbey.

"It would be unfitting that the whole ceremony, not only in its secular but also in its religious and spiritual aspects, should be presented as if it were a theatrical performance," he told the House of Commons.

But despite Winston's reservations, Philip's idea grew on Elizabeth, who was anxious to show the country she was its leader. Elizabeth, realizing that televising the coronation would be a way to break down class barriers, eventually decided she liked the idea. And so, after deliberation, those who were reluctant gave in: BBC would broadcast the event on live television.

The exciting (and long) day

After months of planning, 11:15 a.m. on June 2 had finally arrived. The sales of 14-inch screen TV sets skyrocketed earlier in 1953 when Buckingham Palace announced that the event would be televised. Twenty-seven million people sat in front of their new TV sets, waiting to see their new royal leader arrive at the Abbey. Meanwhile, 11 million more listened to the events unfold on the radio.

Caligula (/kəˈlɪɡjʊlə/;[a] Latin: Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus; 31 August 12 – 24 January 41 AD) was Roman emperor from 37 to 41 AD. The son of the popular Roman general Germanicus and Augustus's granddaughter Agrippina the Elder, Caligula was born into the first ruling family of the Roman Empire, conventionally known as the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Germanicus's uncle and adoptive father, Tiberius, succeeded Augustus as emperor of Rome in 14 AD.

Although he was born Gaius Caesar, after Julius Caesar, he acquired the nickname "Caligula" (meaning "little [soldier's] boot", the diminutive form of caliga) from his father's soldiers during their campaign in Germania. When Germanicus died at Antioch in 19, Agrippina returned with her six children to Rome, where she became entangled in a bitter feud with Tiberius. The conflict eventually led to the destruction of her family, with Caligula as the sole male survivor. Untouched by the deadly intrigues, Caligula accepted an invitation in 31 to join the emperor on the island of Capri, where Tiberius had withdrawn five years earlier. Following the death of Tiberius, Caligula succeeded his adoptive grandfather as emperor in 37.

There are few surviving sources about the reign of Caligula, although he is described as a noble and moderate emperor during the first six months of his rule. After this, the sources focus upon his cruelty, sadism, extravagance, and sexual perversion, presenting him as an insane tyrant. While the reliability of these sources is questionable, it is known that during his brief reign, Caligula worked to increase the unconstrained personal power of the emperor, as opposed to countervailing powers within the principate. He directed much of his attention to ambitious construction projects and luxurious dwellings for himself, and initiated the construction of two aqueducts in Rome: the Aqua Claudia and the Anio Novus. During his reign, the empire annexed the client kingdom of Mauretania as a province.

In early 41, Caligula was assassinated as a result of a conspiracy by officers of the Praetorian Guard, senators, and courtiers. The conspirators' attempt to use the opportunity to restore the Roman Republic was thwarted, however. On the day of the assassination of Caligula, the Praetorians declared Caligula's uncle, Claudius, the next Roman emperor. Although the Julio-Claudian dynasty continued to rule the empire until the fall of his nephew Nero in 68, Caligula's death marked the official end of the Julii Caesares in the male line.

Lying on the remote north west coast of England is one of the most secret places in the country - Sellafield, the most controversial nuclear facility in Britain. Now, Sellafield are letting nuclear physicist Professor Jim Al-Khalili and the television cameras in to discover the real story.

Before Rome there was Carthage. An empire stretching across the top of North Africa and into Spain, Carthaginians viewed the Mediterranean as an extension of their empire and for hundreds of years held control of Sardinia and Sicily in Italy.

But in 146 BC Roman troops tore down the ancient city, systematically destroying every building and killing every inhabitant. Seen here, all that is left today are poorly preserved ruins under modern-day Tunis that belie the significance of the once booming metropolis.

Cambridge University historian Richard Miles is eager to set the record straight, that the destruction of Carthage was a holocaust on a grand scale and that the Carthaginians were ahead of any advances the Roman empire claims to have made.

The wealth of natural resources in their territories gave them immense riches, so that by 500 BC, Carthage, on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, was the wealthiest city in the Western world. Miles' description of the Carthaginians makes them sound like a coterie of rich Miami powerbrokers who face up against a ruthless mob syndicate from New Jersey; one, comfortable in its wealth and security, the other desperate to steal some of that affluence and power away. He is enthusiastic about his subject, having spent time in the region over the past decade. Many of his piece-to-camera explanations are staged on boats, presumably to emphasise the Carthaginians' natural affinity with the sea, a connection that would eventually contribute to the empire's downfall.

The legacy of the empire has been glossed over by history because the Romans, under instructions to "leave not one building standing, not one person alive", were exceedingly thorough in their destruction of the great city. As in many military conquests, the library was one of the first buildings to go and so all record of Carthaginian culture, society and language - recorded by the people themselves - was lost.

Before Rome there was Carthage. An empire stretching across the top of North Africa and into Spain, Carthaginians viewed the Mediterranean as an extension of their empire and for hundreds of years held control of Sardinia and Sicily in Italy.

But in 146 BC Roman troops tore down the ancient city, systematically destroying every building and killing every inhabitant. Seen here, all that is left today are poorly preserved ruins under modern-day Tunis that belie the significance of the once booming metropolis.

Cambridge University historian Richard Miles is eager to set the record straight, that the destruction of Carthage was a holocaust on a grand scale and that the Carthaginians were ahead of any advances the Roman empire claims to have made.

The wealth of natural resources in their territories gave them immense riches, so that by 500 BC, Carthage, on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, was the wealthiest city in the Western world. Miles' description of the Carthaginians makes them sound like a coterie of rich Miami powerbrokers who face up against a ruthless mob syndicate from New Jersey; one, comfortable in its wealth and security, the other desperate to steal some of that affluence and power away. He is enthusiastic about his subject, having spent time in the region over the past decade. Many of his piece-to-camera explanations are staged on boats, presumably to emphasise the Carthaginians' natural affinity with the sea, a connection that would eventually contribute to the empire's downfall.

The legacy of the empire has been glossed over by history because the Romans, under instructions to "leave not one building standing, not one person alive", were exceedingly thorough in their destruction of the great city. As in many military conquests, the library was one of the first buildings to go and so all record of Carthaginian culture, society and language - recorded by the people themselves - was lost.

The Cambodian genocide (Khmer: ហាយនភាពខ្មែរ or ការប្រល័យពូជសាសន៍ខ្មែរ, French: Génocide cambodgien) was carried out by Khmer Rouge under the leadership of Pol Pot, who radically pushed Cambodia towards communism. The movement resulted in the deaths of approximately 1.5 to 2 million people from 1975 to 1979, nearly a quarter of Cambodia's 1975 population (c. 7.8 million)

Pol Pot and Khmer Rouge had long been supported by the Communist Party of China (CPC) and Mao Zedong himself; it is estimated that at least 90% of the foreign aids to Khmer Rouge came from China, with 1975 alone seeing at least US$1 billion in interest-free economics and military aid and US$20 million gift from China. After seizing power in April 1975, the Khmer Rouge wanted to turn the country into a socialist agrarian republic, founded on the policies of ultra-Maoism and influenced by the Cultural Revolution. Pol Pot and other Khmer Rouge officials met with Mao Zedong in Beijing in June 1975, receiving approval and advice, while high-ranking CPC officials such as Zhang Chunqiao later visited Cambodia to offer help. In order to fulfill their goals, the Khmer Rouge emptied the cities and forced Cambodians to relocate to labor camps in the countryside, where mass executions, forced labor, physical abuse, malnutrition, and disease were prevalent. They also started the "Maha Lout Ploh", copying the "Great Leap Forward" of China which caused tens of millions of death in the Great Chinese Famine. In 1976, the Khmer Rouge changed the name of the country to Democratic Kampuchea.

By January 1979, approximately 2 million people died due to the policies of Khmer Rouge, including 200-300 thousand Chinese Cambodians, 90 thousand Muslims, and 20 thousand Vietnamese Cambodians. Some 20,000 people passed through the Security Prison 21, one of the 196 prisons operated by the Khmer Rouge, and only 7 adults survived. The prisoners were taken to the Killing Fields, where they were executed (often with pickaxes in order to save bullets) and buried in mass graves. The abduction and indoctrination of children was widespread, and many were persuaded or forced to commit atrocities. As of 2009, the Documentation Center of Cambodia has mapped some 23,745 mass graves containing approximately 1.3 million suspected victims of execution. Direct execution is believed to account for roughly 60% of the full death toll during the genocide, with other victims succumbing to starvation, exhaustion, or disease.

The genocide triggered a second outflow of refugees, many of whom escaped to neighboring Vietnam and, to a lesser extent, Thailand. The Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia ended the genocide by defeating the Khmer Rouge in January, 1979. On 2 January 2001, the Cambodian government established the Khmer Rouge Tribunal, to try the members of the Khmer Rouge leadership responsible for the Cambodian genocide. Trials began on 17 February 2009. On 7 August 2014, Nuon Chea and Khieu Samphan were convicted and received life sentences for crimes against humanity during the genocide

Recent findings by paleoanthropologist Christy Turner link the disappearance of the Anasazi around 1200 A.D. to cannibalism, a claim that has stirred fierce debate.

This is the untold story of the greatest slaving nation in history. Up till now, Britain’s place in the history of slavery has been as the country that abolished the international slave trade. Britain’s Slave Trade reveals the shameful truth behind this liberal facade, showing how the economic, social and cultural life of Britain would have been unrecognisable without slavery.

Britain’s Slave Trade explains how a middling European power transformed itself into the ruler of the waves, tracing the impact this had on the British way of life and taking in the Industrial Revolution, the beginnings of Empire and the birth of modern racism along the way. It also unearths startling evidence showing how many families that think of themselves as ‘pure’ English stock are in fact descended from slave ancestors.

Gold, Silver & Slaves looks at how the business of slavery was a case of slave-trading by complicit Africans, fuelled by the greed of African kings.

This is a list of the 31 present and extant dukes in the peerages of the Kingdom of England, Kingdom of Scotland, Kingdom of Great Britain, Kingdom of Ireland, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland 1927 and after. For a more complete historical listing, including extinct, dormant, abeyant, forfeit dukedoms in addition to these extant ones, see List of dukedoms in the peerages of Britain and Ireland.

In the Peerage of England, the title of Duke was created 74 times (using 40 different titles: the rest were recreations). Twice a woman was created a Duchess in her own right (but only for life); in addition, the Dukedom of Marlborough was once inherited by a woman, the 2nd Duchess of Marlborough, through a special remainder. Out of the 74 times, 37 titles are now extinct (including the two women's), 16 titles were forfeit or surrendered, 10 were merged with the Crown, and 11 are extant (see list below). The first, Cornwall, is a title that automatically goes to the heir apparent (if and only if he is also the eldest living son of the Sovereign). One of the duchies that was merged into the Crown, Lancaster, still provides income to the Sovereign. All but three of the non-royal ducal titles which became extinct did so before the 20th century (the Duke of Leeds became extinct in 1964, the Duke of Newcastle in 1988, and the Duke of Portland in 1990). The last English dukedom to be forfeit became so in 1715. The last British dukedom to become extinct was the title of Duke of Portland in 1990.[1]

The oldest six titles – created between 1337 and 1386 – were Duke of Cornwall (1337), Duke of Lancaster (1351), Duke of Clarence (1362), Duke of York (1385), Duke of Gloucester (1385), and Duke of Ireland (1386). The Duke of Ireland was a title used for only two years and is somewhat confusing since only a small portion of Ireland was really under the control of England in 1386; it is not to be confused with the dukedoms of the Peerage of Ireland. Clarence has not been used since 1478, when George (the brother of Edward IV) was executed for treason. (However Clarence has since been used as half of a double title, most recently until 1892 when Victoria's grandson (and son of the Prince of Wales), the Duke of Clarence and Avondale, died at the age of 28). The titles of Duke of York and the Duke of Gloucester have both become extinct more than once and been re-created as titles within the Peerage of the United Kingdom. Both titles are reserved for princes (and their descendants). The Duke of Lancaster has merged with the Crown and so is held by the monarch. On 29 September 1397, in an unprecedented move, six dukedoms were created on a single day. None of these titles is extant.

Besides the dukedoms of Cornwall and Lancaster, the oldest extant title is that of Duke of Norfolk, dating from 1483 (the title was first created in 1397). The Duke of Norfolk is considered the Premier Duke of England. The premier duke of Scotland is the Duke of Hamilton and Brandon. The premier duke of Ireland is the Duke of Leinster.

Britain's Real Monarch was a historical documentary presented by Tony Robinson first shown on Channel 4 on 3 January 2004. It has also been broadcast in Australia and in the United States. The documentary discusses the descendants of George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence, and their claim to the throne of England.

The programme based its thesis on the centuries-old claim that Edward IV was illegitimate, born to Cecily, Duchess of York, by an English archer (surnamed Blaybourne by some) while her husband, Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York, was fighting elsewhere in France. The legitimacy of Edward IV was the subject of speculation at the time, and a document in Rouen Cathedral is presented by Dr Michael Jones as indicating that Richard and Cecily were about 100 miles (160 km) apart during the five-week period when Edward's conception must have occurred (assuming that the pregnancy went to a normal term). A number of historians have since challenged the conclusions reached by the programme.

If Edward were indeed illegitimate, then he and his descendants would have had no valid claim to the throne, so the programme suggests that the 'real' monarchs were the heirs of his legitimate brother George, Duke of Clarence. At the time, this line was represented by The 14th Earl of Loudoun (who usually styled himself simply as Michael Hastings), who had emigrated to Australia in 1960, married, fathered five children, and lived in Jerilderie, New South Wales, until his death in June 2012. He would be succeeded in this theoretical pretendership by his son Simon Abney-Hastings, 15th Earl of Loudoun.