Welcome to the last episode of the first season of The Levant Files' Deep Dive Podcast Section, where we move beyond the headlines and into the heart of history. What if the story of a nation wasn't just a collection of dates and dry facts, but a living, breathing narrative shaped by constant struggle, unimaginable loss, and an unbreakable spirit?

Today, we embark on a journey into the tumultuous and profoundly moving history of modern Armenia. We're setting aside ancient chronicles to focus on the pivotal 20th and 21st centuries—a period that forged the nation's contemporary identity. This isn't a simple timeline; it's a story of survival against all odds. We will navigate from the tragic dawn of the Armenian Genocide, a foundational trauma that echoes to this day, through the complex decades of Soviet rule where national identity simmered just beneath the surface.

We'll witness the fleeting, hard-won moments of independence, the devastating conflicts over Nagorno-Karabakh, and the relentless geopolitical pressures of being at a crossroads of empires. It's a tale of how a people, repeatedly caught between larger powers, have fought to preserve their culture, their faith, and their right to self-determination.

Our mission is to unpack this intricate history, exploring the key moments, the external pressures, and the internal will that have defined Armenia's path. As we begin, consider this: How does a small nation, defined so heavily by its tragic past and its challenging geography, secure a stable future in the 21st century? Join us as we deep dive into the story of modern Armenia. 

Welcome to a new episode of The Levant Files

Imagine a place that, just over a century ago, was little more than a geographical name on a map. Fast forward through a century of imperial collapse, world wars, revolution, and brutal conflict, and it emerges as a modern nation-state. What forces drive such a breakneck transformation? And what legacy does that turbulent journey leave for a country navigating the complexities of the 21st century?

This week, in our new podcast episode, we delve into the fascinating and often turbulent history of modern Azerbaijan. We'll trace its path from a collection of people under the Russian Empire—where local Muslims faced systemic discrimination—to the surprisingly rapid formation of a national identity in the early 1900s. We explore the brief, doomed dream of its first independence, crushed by the Soviet Red Army, and the 70 years that followed, where Moscow both institutionalized the "Azerbaijani" ethnic category while simultaneously attempting to erase inconvenient histories.

Join us as we unpack the chaos of the Soviet collapse, the explosion of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict that came to define an era, and the political turmoil that paved the way for a second, hard-won independence. We'll examine how the legacies of Soviet-era corruption, immense oil wealth, and unresolved conflict continue to shape the nation today. Ultimately, this is a story that asks a profound question: What does it take to forge a stable, unified identity when the very definition of your people has been contested, constructed, and in constant flux for generations?

Selected Sources:

Bolukbasi, Suha. Azerbaijan: A Political History. United Kingdom: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2013.

Transcaucasia, Nationalism, and Social Change. USA: University of Michigan Press, 1996.

Zeynaloglu, Jahangir. A Concise History of Azerbaijan: From Azerbaijani Turkic Dynasties of the Middle Ages to the First Turkic Republic. N.p.: Independently Published, 2020.

Step back to July 2, 1993. A vibrant cultural festival in the Turkish city of Sivas is underway, a gathering of poets, writers, and musicians. But by nightfall, the celebration has turned into a scene of unimaginable horror. The Madımak Hotel, a supposed sanctuary, is engulfed in flames, and 37 lives are tragically extinguished by a mob incited to violence.

This deep-dive episode unpacks the chilling events of the Sivas Massacre, a wound that remains unhealed in Turkey's modern history. We explore how a climate of incitement, fueled by inflammatory media and deliberately circulated pamphlets, turned a crowd of thousands into a violent mob. Drawing on firsthand accounts and official reports, we expose the catastrophic failure of the state to intervene, detailing how repeated calls for help went unanswered and how security forces seemed to vanish as the siege intensified.

But this isn't just a story of a single day. We move beyond the numbers to honor the victims—from a 12-year-old boy to celebrated artists and engaged couples—putting human faces to the tragedy. The episode then navigates the labyrinthine legal battle that followed: a three-decade struggle marred by controversial rulings, the persistent denial of an organized plot despite confessions, and the bitter reality of key perpetrators escaping justice. We dissect how the official narrative of "provocation" shaped a legal process that has offered little solace to the families.

Join us as we ask the difficult questions: How does a society heal when justice feels incomplete? What is the responsibility of collective memory when an atrocity is still so fiercely contested? This is a story of fire, but more importantly, it's a story of the enduring and painful fight for truth and accountability.

Photo: Wikipedia Commons

A political earthquake has shaken Greece, resulting in a series of high-level resignations that include government ministers and top officials. At the heart of the crisis is a sprawling agricultural scandal involving millions in EU funds, startling allegations of a sophisticated criminal organization, and a direct clash between European prosecutors and the Greek state. This is not just a local issue; it's a story of systemic corruption that has triggered investigations from Brussels and resulted in fines costing the country hundreds of millions of euros.

The scandal, spearheaded by the European Public Prosecutor's Office (EPPO), alleges a massive scheme to defraud funds intended to support genuine farmers. Investigators describe a "pyramid of corruption" where state officials, politicians, and individuals allegedly worked together to siphon off subsidies illegally. The methods were as brazen as they were bizarre, from creating "ghost flocks" of non-existent sheep and goats to claiming massive subsidies for phantom beehives, with applications in some sectors exceeding the entire available budget by nearly nine times.

Centered mainly on the island of Crete, the operation allegedly involved fabricating documents, claiming public land as private pasture, and pressuring officials to approve fraudulent payments. Whistleblowers who tried to stop the flow of money were reportedly fired, while wiretapped conversations suggest brazen attempts to interfere with the investigation itself. Now, as the Greek government plans the drastic step of shutting down the entire payment agency, legitimate farmers find their crucial payments frozen, becoming the ultimate victims of the fallout.

In this deep dive, we will unpack the complex web of this scandal. We'll sift through the explosive 3,000-page prosecutor's file, examine the political fallout, and explore the mechanisms of the fraud to understand how deep this alleged corruption runs, the legal hurdles preventing prosecution, and who ultimately pays the price.

Photo: Wikimedia Commons

Welcome to the 8th brand new episode of The Levant Files' Deep Dive Podcast Service! Prepare for an in-depth exploration as we delve into the complex, turbulent, and often misunderstood modern history of Libya. From the sands of the Sahara to the shores of the Mediterranean, we'll navigate a century of transformation guided by the insightful works of leading scholars Dirk Vandewalle and Bukola A. Oyeniyi.

Our journey begins with the very foundations: how Libya's challenging geography and vast desert expanses forged distinct regional identities—Tripolitania, Cyrenaica, and Fezzan—laying the groundwork for centuries of complex interactions.

We'll explore:

The Ottoman Era & Emerging Powers: Witness the waning Ottoman influence, the rise of local dynasties like the Karamanlis, and the pivotal emergence of the Sanussi order, a spiritual and political force that would profoundly shape Cyrenaica.

Italian Colonization & Brutal Realities: Delve into the harsh era of Italian colonial rule, the fascist ambition to create a "Fourth Shore," the brutal suppression of resistance, and the demographic re-engineering attempts that left deep scars.

Independence & the Monarchy: Follow Libya's path to a fragile, UN-brokered independence under King Idris I and the initial struggles of a new nation trying to unify its disparate parts.

The Oil Bonanza & Its Double-Edged Sword: Discover how the discovery of oil dramatically reshaped Libya's destiny, bringing immense wealth but also laying the seeds for patronage, dependency, and the erosion of traditional structures.

Gaddafi's Revolution & the Jamahiriya: Unpack the 1969 coup that brought Muammar Gaddafi to power. We'll examine his radical "Third Universal Theory," the Green Book, and the attempt to create a "state of the masses" (Jamahiriya)—contrasting the revolutionary rhetoric with the reality of centralized, often opaque, control.

Navigating Global Tides & Internal Tensions: Trace Libya's tumultuous international relations, from Arab nationalism and anti-Western stances to sanctions, the Lockerbie bombing, and eventual, cautious attempts at rapprochement. Internally, we'll see how oil wealth often bypassed genuine institution-building, fueling a system reliant on patronage and personal loyalty.

Reform Attempts and Resistance: Uncover the late-era attempts at economic and political reform, often driven by figures such as Saif al-Islam Gaddafi and Shukri Ghanem, and the powerful old guard resistance that ultimately stymied deep-seated change.

The 2011 Uprising & Descent into Chaos: Finally, we'll confront the seismic events of the 2011 Arab Spring, the rapid escalation from protests to civil war, NATO intervention, the fall and death of Gaddafi, and the subsequent fragmentation of the country, as militias and rival factions vying for power in the vacuum left behind.

This episode of The Levant Files untangles the intricate threads of Libyan history—from imperial ambition and colonial exploitation to the intoxicating power of oil wealth and the enduring challenge of building a unified, stable state. Join us as we explore how these historical forces have shaped the Libya of today, a nation still grappling with its fractured past.

Tune in now to "Libya's Fractured Past: Oil, Power, and the Path to Chaos" – the latest deep dive from The Levant Files!

The Academic Sources: 

Oyeniyi, Bukola A. The History of Libya. Bloomsbury Academic, 2019.

Vandewalle, Dirk. A History of Modern Libya. Cambridge University Press, 2012.

Wright, John. Libya: A Modern History. Taylor & Francis, 2022.

Welcome to a new deep dive, our podcast service, powered by the Google's Gemini AI technology, from The Levant Files!

Today, we're dissecting one of the most influential, enduring, and controversial socio-political movements in the modern Middle East: The Muslim Brotherhood. For nearly a century, its evolution has shaped events, challenged states, and sparked intense debate both within and outside its ranks.

Listen to "Unpacking the Muslim Brotherhood – A Century of Evolution and Ordeal" now on Spotify and wherever you get your podcasts!

We'll explore:

The foundational ideas of Hassan al-Banna.

The intricate internal structures and norms that build identity and ensure cohesion – concepts like Tarbiyya, the Usra system, Thiqah (trust), and Ta'a (obedience).

The movement's dialectical relationship with state power, oscillating between opposition, cautious participation, and outright persecution.

The critical ideological debates that have shaped its trajectory, particularly the tension between gradualism and more radical interpretations, exemplified by figures like Sayyid Qutb and Hassan al-Hudaybi.

Key historical moments, including its interactions with Nasser, its electoral successes in the 1980s, the dramatic rise after the 2011 Arab Spring, Morsi's brief presidency, and the devastating aftermath of the 2013 coup in Egypt.

The distinct yet interconnected story of the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood and its own struggles.

How the Brotherhood has navigated immense external pressures while grappling with internal demands for reform and accountability.

This isn't just a historical overview; it's an exploration of how an organization builds and maintains identity, adapts (or fails to adapt) to shifting political landscapes, and the profound impact of its core tenets on its survival and evolution.

Sources Used for This Episode:

Pargeter, A. The Muslim Brotherhood: From Opposition to Power. Saqi Books, 2013.

Wickham, C.R. The Muslim Brotherhood: Evolution of an Islamist Movement - Updated Edition. Princeton University Press, 2015.

Willi, V.J. The Fourth Ordeal: A History of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt, 1968–2018. Cambridge University Press, 2021.

Zollner, B. The Muslim Brotherhood: Hasan Al-Hudaybi and Ideology. Taylor & Francis, 2009.

Díaz, N.R. The Muslim Brotherhood in Syria: The Democratic Option of Islamism. Taylor & Francis, 2017.

Mellor, N. Voice of the Muslim Brotherhood: Da'wa, Discourse, and Political Communication. Taylor & Francis, 2017.

Photo: The banner of the Muslim Brotherhood, Wikimedia Commons

You might have seen the recent, quite surprising news: the PKK's 12th Congress and its decision to consider... dissolving. This headline makes you stop and think: How does an organization with such a long and impactful history reach this point?

In our latest episode of Deep Dive of The Levant Files, titled "PKK at a Crossroads: From Armed Struggle to Potential Dissolution," created with the help of the revolutionary Gemini AI's technology, we're diving deep into this momentous development. We're not just looking at today's headlines but unpacking the PKK's entire journey.

Join us as we:

• Trace the PKK's origins in the late 1970s, its initial Marxist-Socialist ideology, and its goal of national liberation for Kurds within Turkey.
• Explore its shift to armed struggle in the 1980s, the intense conflict that ensued, and the Turkish state's multifaceted response, including the controversial village guard system.
• Witness the ideological evolutions, particularly after the collapse of the Soviet Union and the pivotal capture of Abdullah Öcalan in 1999. Discover how this led to the formulation of "Democratic Confederalism" and the establishment of the broader KCK umbrella organization.
• Understand the PKK's role within this transnational network, including its affiliates in Syria (PYD/YPG) and Iran (PJAK), and how this complex history leads us to the current, stunning consideration of dissolution.

We'll examine the key developments, ideological underpinnings, strategic shifts, and the profound questions this potential dissolution raises for the Kurdish movement and the wider region. What does self-determination mean in the 21st century, and what might this signal for the future path of Kurdish political aspirations?

Please tune in to The Levant Files for a comprehensive look at one of the Middle East's most enduring and controversial organizations, now potentially facing its most significant transformation.

🎙️ Listen now on Spotify and wherever you get your podcasts!

Academic and other sources used for the creation of the podcast: 

White, Paul J. The Pkk : Coming down from the Mountains. Rebels. London: Zed Books Ltd, 2015. Table of contents http://digitale-objekte.hbz-nrw.de/storage2/2015/10/19/file_12/6472917.pdf.

Özcan, Ali Kemal. Turkey's Kurds : A Theoretical Analysis of the Pkk and Abdullah ÖCalan. Routledge Advances in Middle East and Islamic Studies. London ; New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2006. Table of contents only http://www.loc.gov/catdir/toc/ecip054/2004028869.html

Publisher description http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0653/2004028869-d.html.

Marcus, Aliza. Blood and Belief : The Pkk and the Kurdish Fight for Independence. New York: New York University Press, 2007. Table of contents only http://www.loc.gov/catdir/toc/ecip0712/2007007891.html

Publisher description http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0730/2007007891-d.html

Contributor biographical information http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0733/2007007891-b.html.

Černy, Hannes. Iraqi Kurdistan, the Pkk and International Relations : Theory and Ethnic Conflict. Exeter Studies in Ethno Politics. London ; New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, 2018.

Saeed, Seevan. Kurdish Politics in Turkey : From the Pkk to the Kck. Routledge Studies in Middle Eastern Politics. London ; New York: Routledge, 2017.

Balci, Ali. The Pkk-Kurdistan Workers' Party's Regional Politics : During and after the Cold War. 1st ed. Cham: Springer International Publishing : Imprint: Palgrave Macmillan,, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-42219-0.

The Levant Files Unpacks Tumultuous Kingdom of Egypt (1922-1953) in New Podcast Episode

The popular history podcast The Levant Files, Deep Dive, has released a compelling new episode, "Kingdom of Egypt (1922-1953). " This episode offers listeners an in-depth exploration of a transformative period in modern Egyptian history. The episode charts the Kingdom's formal establishment in 1922, its complex internal and external challenges, and its dramatic overthrow by the 1952/53 Revolution.

The podcast emphasizes that understanding the Kingdom requires a look back to its 19th-century roots, particularly the foundational efforts of Muhammad Ali (Wali from 1805-1848). Ali, though appointed by the Ottoman Sultan, secured hereditary rule and initiated sweeping modernizations, including creating a European-style army by conscripting peasant farmers and a controversial consolidation of power by eliminating the Mamluk elite. His expansionist ambitions, however, brought him into conflict with European powers and the Ottoman Sultan, foreshadowing future foreign entanglements.

Following Ali, Khedive Ismail (1863-1879) accelerated modernization to make Egypt "part of Europe." His reign saw the completion of the iconic Suez Canal and significant educational investments, fostering a new European-style elite. The British occupation, triggered by the Urabi Revolt and rising Egyptian nationalism, became a focal point of Egyptian political life. "The Levant Files" explores how this foreign domination fueled nationalist movements, culminating in the 1919 Revolution led by Saad Zaghloul and the Wafd Party.

After the 1920s Britain retained control over crucial areas known as the "Four Reserved Points," including the Suez Canal's security, Egypt's defense, foreign interests, and Sudan. This set the stage for a persistent tripartite power struggle within the Kingdom between the monarchy (King Fuad and later King Farouk), the popular Wafd party, and the ever-present British influence.

Throughout the Kingdom years, Egypt navigated attempts to establish a stable constitutional framework, negotiate treaties like the 1936 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty, and endure the pressures of World War II,.

"The Levant Files" also charts the rise of new ideological forces challenging the existing order during this period. The Muslim Brotherhood grew into a powerful entity advocating for an Islamic state, while the Egyptian Communist movement organized workers and intellectuals. The Egyptian army's humiliating defeat in the 1948 Palestine War further eroded the legitimacy of King Farouk, whose reign became increasingly associated with corruption and ineffectiveness.

This confluence of factors—discredited monarchy, unresolved national issues, social inequality, and the army's discontent—created a fertile ground for revolution. The podcast details how the Free Officers Movement, a secret group of nationalist military figures with Gamal Abdel Nasser as a key driving force, seized power in July 1952. Muhammad Naguib initially served as the public face of the revolution.

For Further Reading (as cited by The Levant Files):

The Cambridge History of Egypt: Volume 2, Modern Egypt, from 1517 to the End of the Twentieth Century. Ηνωμένο Βασίλειο: Cambridge University Press, 2008.

McGregor, Andrew. A Military History of Modern Egypt: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War. Ηνωμένο Βασίλειο: Bloomsbury Academic, 2006.

Shamir, Shimon. Egypt From Monarchy To Republic: A Reassessment Of Revolution And Change. Ηνωμένο Βασίλειο: Taylor & Francis, 2021.

Vatikiotis, P.J., The Modern History of Egypt. New York & Washington: Frederick A. Praeger, 1969.

Whidden, James. Monarchy and Modernity in Egypt: Politics, Islam and Neo-Colonialism Between the Wars. Ηνωμένο Βασίλειο: I.B.Tauris, 2013.

New Podcast from TLF: "Red Star Over Persia: The Forgotten History of Iran's Tudeh Party"

A Journey Through Iran's Complex Communist Legacy

Historians and political scholars, take note: The Levant Files launches a new podcast series exploring the tumultuous history of Iran's communist movement. "Red Star Over Persia: The Forgotten History of Iran's Tudeh Party" offers listeners an unprecedented deep dive into one of the Middle East's most influential yet often overlooked political movements of the 20th century.

The Communist Legacy in Iranian Politics

The Tudeh Party of Iran, formed in 1941 with Soleiman Mirza Eskandari as its head, emerged as a significant political force that had considerable influence in its early years. The podcast meticulously tracks the party's evolution since its formation, following the Anglo-Soviet occupation of Persia and the abdication of Reza Shah in September 1941.

Our new Gemini AI-powered podcast aims to illuminate how the Tudeh Party played a pivotal role during Mohammad Mosaddegh's campaign to nationalize the Anglo-Persian Oil Company. This period represents a critical juncture in Iranian history that continues to shape geopolitical relations today.

From Influence to Persecution

The podcast doesn't shy away from examining the party's complex trajectory, which has been described as "the main orthodox Communist organization in contemporary Iran." Special attention is given to the dramatic shift in the party's fortunes after 1953, when Persian communism, previously embodied primarily in the Tudeh party, faced severe repression.

What makes this story compelling is how the Tudeh Party followed the ideological and political directives of the Soviet Union while attempting to navigate Iran's unique political landscape.

The podcast draws on extensive research, allowing listeners to gain insight into the 71-year history of Iran's labor and communist movement, including the 51 years of the Tudeh Party's existence as the self-proclaimed party of the Iranian working class.

Bridging Historical Gaps

For listeners who have enjoyed podcasts on history, "Red Star Over Persia" offers a compelling counternarrative centered on Iran's modern political development. The series promises to seamlessly connect ancient Persian history with the communist movements of the 20th century in a cohesive historical narrative.

Release Information

"Red Star Over Persia: The Forgotten History of Iran's Tudeh Party" is available on all major podcast platforms beginning May 10, 2025.

The following citations were used in the research for this podcast series:

1. "Tudeh Party of Iran," Wikipedia, last modified May 9, 2025, accessed May 9, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudeh_Party_of_Iran.
2. M. Omidvar, "Brief History of the Tudeh Party of Iran," Tudeh Party of Iran, March 1993, accessed May 9, 2025, https://tudehpartyiran.org/en/1993/03/31/brief-history-of-the-tudeh-party-of-iran.
3. M. Reza Ghods, "The Iranian Communist Movement under Reza Shah," Middle Eastern Studies 26, no. 4 (October 1990): 506–513.
4. Ervand Abrahamian, Iran Between Two Revolutions, published by Princeton University Press in Princeton, NJ, in 1982.
5. Fred Halliday's article "The Tudeh Party in Iranian Politics," published in Middle East Report, no. 86 (March/April 1980), is excerpted from the book Iran: Dictatorship and Democracy (1979). This article was accessed on May 9, 2025, at https://merip.org/1980/03/the-tudeh-party-in-iranian-politics/.
6. Najleh Khandagh, "The Historical Background of the Tudeh Party (Mass Party) of Iran 1941-47," European Journal of Research and Reflection in Arts and Humanities 4, no. 2 (2016): 1–25.
7. "History of the Tudeh Party of Iran," Iran Chamber Society, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.iranchamber.com/history/tudeh/tudeh_party01.php.

The Levant Files podcast has released a compelling new episode examining the complex evolution of Yemen's Houthi movement. Prompted by recent headlines surrounding alleged Houthi attacks extending as far as Israel's Ben Gurion Airport, the episode offers a deep dive into the group's transformation from a locally focused Zaydi Shia revivalist movement into a formidable regional force.

The podcast unpacks the Houthis' origins in northern Yemen, tracing their roots back to the early 1990s and Hussein Badreddin al-Houthi's leadership. It explores the initial grievances driving the movement, including feelings of political and economic marginalization under the central government, resistance to perceived external influences like Salafism, and the legacy of Yemen's complex political history.

Listeners gain insight into key stages of the Houthis' development, particularly the hardening experience of the Sa'ada wars (2004-2010) against the Yemeni government, which honed their military capabilities and anti-establishment narrative. The episode analyzes their strategic, albeit temporary, alliance with former President Ali Abdullah Saleh and their pivotal capture of the capital, Sana'a, in 2014, capitalizing on the failures of the post-Arab Spring transitional government.

The discussion also tackles the group's internal dynamics, external support – notably consistent accusations of Iranian backing with weapons and training – and the comparison often drawn with Hezbollah. While acknowledging potential proxy dynamics, the podcast emphasizes the Houthis' specific goals shaped by Yemen's unique context.

Ultimately, "The Levant Files" provides a nuanced perspective, moving beyond simple headlines to illuminate the historical, political, and military factors behind the Houthis' rise and their increasing willingness to project power. This raises crucial questions about their capabilities, limitations, and the future stability of the region.

Sources Used in Podcast Creation:

• Council on Foreign Relations, "Iran's Support of the Houthis: What to Know," Council on Foreign Relations, January 31, 2024, https://www.cfr.org/in-brief/irans-support-houthis-what-know. (Note: The date 5/4/25 found in the OCR header is likely an access date or placeholder; the article itself was last updated on January 31, 2024, per the live website. The footnote uses the updated date as the publication date. The OCR also contains a correction note dated March 24, 2025, which is also a future date and likely an error in the source document/OCR.)
• Jean-Loup C. Samaan, "Adapting to Adaptive Adversaries: Missiles, Drones, and the Houthis in Yemen," Parameters 50, no. 1 (Spring 2020): 52–64.
• Euronews with AP, "Missile from Yemen hits Tel Aviv's Ben Gurion airport," Euronews, May 4, 2025, https://www.euronews.com/2025/05/04/missile-from-yemen-hits-tel-avivs-ben-gurion-airport. (Note: The date 5/4/25 appears to be a placeholder or error in the source document/OCR as it is a future date.)
• Helen Lackner, Yemen: Poverty and Conflict (London and New York: Routledge, 2023).
• Alexandra Stark, The Yemen Model: Why U.S. Policy Has Failed in the Middle East (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2024).
• Marieke Brandt, Tribes and Politics in Yemen: A History of the Houthi Conflict (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017).