Scientists at University of Cambridge and University of Leeds have reversed age-related memory loss in mice. According to the scientists, this discovery could lead to the development of treatments to prevent memory loss in people as they age. "We saw remarkable results when we treated the ageing mice with this treatment,” says Jessica Kwok in a press release issued by University of Leeds. “The memory and ability to learn were restored to levels they would not have seen since they were much younger." A study is published in Molecular Psychiatry. In it, the scientists investigate the factors responsible for the loss of memory that comes with aging. And they show that it is possible to reverse aging-related loss of memory in laboratory mice using genetic treatments. Perineuronal nets (PNNs) are cartilage-like scaffolding structures that surround neurons in the brain. PNNs contain compounds known as chondroitin sulphates. They play important roles in neuroplasticity, which is the ability of the brain to learn and adapt. Some PNNs, such as chondroitin 4-sulphate, inhibit neuroplasticity. Others, such as chondroitin 6-sulphate, promote neuroplasticity. As we age, the balance of these compounds changes. And, as levels of chondroitin 6-sulphate decrease, so our ability to learn and form new memories changes, leading to age-related memory decline. The scientists experimented with aging mice. They treated the mice using a virus capable of boosting the levels of 6-sulphate chondroitin sulphates. This completely restored memory in the aging mice, to a level similar to that seen in younger mice. ​​Young mice had been genetically-manipulated such that they were only able to produce low levels of chondroitin 6-sulphate. They showed signs of premature memory loss. But increasing levels of chondroitin 6-sulphate, using the virus, restored their memory and neuroplasticity. “What is exciting about this is that although our study was only in mice, the same mechanism should operate in humans - the molecules and structures in the human brain are the same as those in rodents,” says James Fawcett in a press release issued by University of Cambridge. “This suggests that it may be possible to prevent humans from developing memory loss in old age." The scientists have identified a potential drug, already licensed for human use. It could help human patients with memory problems, including older adults suffering from Alzheimer’s disease. The scientists are investigating the effects of this drug in laboratory animal models of Alzheimer's disease.

Researchers at UC San Francisco have developed a speech neuroprosthesis. It has enabled a man with severe paralysis to communicate in sentences. It does this by translating signals from his brain to the vocal tract directly into words that appear as text on a screen. "To our knowledge, this is the first successful demonstration of direct decoding of full words from the brain activity of someone who is paralyzed and cannot speak," says neurosurgeon Edward Chang in a press release issued by UC San Francisco. "It shows strong promise to restore communication by tapping into the brain's natural speech machinery." Previous speech neuroprosthetics work has demonstrated the possibility to capture the brain signals of paralyzed patients. And it has been possible to translate the signals to allow the patients to slowly type out letters one-by-one in text. But now Chang and his team have found ways to capture and translate the brain signals intended to control muscles of the vocal system for speaking words, rather than the signals to move the arm or hand to enable typing. This new approach promises more rapid and organic communication. "With speech, we normally communicate information at a very high rate, up to 150 or 200 words per minute," explains Chang. "Going straight to words, as we're doing here, has great advantages because it's closer to how we normally speak." A study is published in New England Journal of Medicine. It reports that the researchers implanted a high-density electrode array over a paralyzed patient’s speech motor cortex. And they used artificial intelligence, specifically custom neural networks, to translate the patterns of recorded neural activity into specific intended words. The system was able to decode words from brain activity and generate synthesized speech at a rate of up to 18 words per minute, with up to 93% accuracy (75% median). The patient was a man in his late 30s who suffered a devastating brainstem stroke more than 15 years ago. He worked with the researchers to create a 50-word vocabulary that Chang's team could recognize from brain activity using advanced computer algorithms. The vocabulary includes words such as "water," "family," and "good.” It was sufficient to create hundreds of sentences relevant to the patient’s daily life. "This trial is just the beginning,” said Chang as reported by CNN. “This is the very first participant that's been in the trial, and the first set of experiments that were part of this trial to show that this is possible." The next steps are to see “if this is better, worse or the same in more people,” said Chang as reported by Scientific American. The researchers will also use a larger vocabulary to train the machine that decodes the brain’s output. The vocabulary has already expanded beyond the 50 words reported in this study, he says, and “it’s exciting to see things grow in that kind of way.”

Gotu Kola! The name may sound like an exotic soft drink. But it's a plant. Also known as Centella Asiatica and Asiatic Pennywort, it's an herb in the parsley family. People around the globe have used Gotu Kola for centuries to provide health benefits and enhance their bodies. As a supplement, it comes in the form of dried herb, powdered herb, tincture, or standardized extract. It's also a key ingredient in various serums, haircare products, beauty oils, and face creams. A study conducted in the United States suggests that at least 35% of people use herbal supplements. And a large portion of pharmaceutical products originate from herbs. So you may have already unknowingly benefited from Gotu Kola. Gotu Kola contains triterpenoid, tannin, and polyphenol, among other healthy phytochemicals. And it provides various minerals and vitamins, including: Vitamin A and C Potassium Iron Calcium Vitamin B2 Gotu Kola Benefits What is Gotu Kola good for? People use it to support and enhance the healthy function of their bodies. Some common applications include skin and joint enhancement, support for healthy gut and immune function, and sleep improvement. But we still need more human studies for these applications. Based on human studies, what does Gotu Kola do for you? Scientific evidence suggests that it may boost cognitive function. And the best evidence shows that Gotu Kola can enhance blood circulation, including microcirculation. Boost Cognitive Function A 2016 study compared the effects of Gotu Kola to those of folic acid for enhancing cognitive function. Folic Acid had already been demonstrated to be effective. And researchers found that Gotu Kola was equally effective. In a placebo-controlled study in 2000, researchers observed that Gotu Kola promoted calmness. Participants' sense of well-being improved. And, notably, the benefit resulted from a single dose. A 2008 study found that Gotu Kola enhanced alertness. Choice and spatial memory reaction time improved. Working memory increased. Calmness and mood also improved. A 2010 study confirmed that Gotu Kola enhanced mood. Participants were better able to manage stress. And their attention improved. Traditionally, people have paired Gotu Kola with Bacopa Monnieri. Bacopa is also an herb. And it has high levels of evidence for memory enhancement. Research suggests that both Gotu Kola and Bacopa Monnieri are effective nootropics. Enhance Blood Circulation A 2001 study found that Gotu Kola enhanced circulation. Researchers observed that it improved microcirculation. And it improved venous blood flow. These results were confirmed in at least five other 2001 studies. The results also confirmed findings from at least five human studies in previous years. They include studies in 1987 and 1990. And they include Italian studies as early as 1981, 1982, and 1994. Subsequently, a 2013 systematic review also supported these findings. A particularly interesting study in 2001 was " Flight microangiopathy in medium- to long-distance flights: prevention of edema and microcirculation alterations with total triterpenic fraction of Centella asiatica. " This study found that people who supplemented with Gotu Kola had fewer variations in circulation while traveling in economy class flights up to 10 hours. This underscores the ordinary practical benefit of the supplement. Where to Buy Gotu Kola Thrivous provides an advanced supplement with the best natural geroprotectors to enhance blood circulation and support heart function. Here are some of the reasons that you should buy Omega Cardioprotector: You get 60 capsules that provide clinical doses of Gotu Kola Extract, Garlic Extract, Omega 3 Lysine Complex, Olive Extract, and Maritime Pine Extract. Each nutrient and dose in the formula reflects the best available research from years of studies by scientists around the world. Each material and their combination passes through multiple rounds of rigorous quality control in FDA-certified facilities. All of the ...

Researchers at UC San Francisco have shown that gene-edited cellular therapeutics can be used to successfully treat cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases. In a proof-of-concept study, the researchers have demonstrated that stem cell engineering could permit treating major diseases while evading the immune system. This cell therapy technology has been tested in laboratory mice. But it's potentially applicable to human health care. And it could permit developing less expensive therapeutic applications to treat diseases for which there are currently few viable options. A paper is published in PNAS. It reports that the researchers used gene editing to create “universal stem cells” (named HIP cells) that are not recognized by the immune system. They can be used to make "universal cell therapeutics." This could eliminate the need to generate custom cell therapeutics using a blood sample from every individual patient. Personalization is costly but has been necessary in order to avoid immune responses. "We showed that immune-engineered HIP cells reliably evade immune rejection in mice with different tissue types, a situation similar to the transplantation between unrelated human individuals,” says research co-leader Tobias Deuse in a press release issued by UC San Francisco. “This immune evasion was maintained in diseased tissue and tissue with poor blood supply without the use of any immunosuppressive drugs." Then the researchers transplanted specialized, immune-engineered HIP cells into laboratory mice. And they found that the cell therapeutics could alleviate peripheral artery disease in hindlimbs. They could prevent the development of lung disease in mice with alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency. And they could alleviate heart failure in mice after myocardial infarction. It is expected that, in human patients, the new cell therapeutics could eventually treat three major diseases affecting different organ systems. Those are peripheral artery disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease from alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency, and heart failure. Heart disease is increasingly a global epidemic with more than 5.7 million patients in the United States alone and some 870,000 new cases annually. Deuse explains that this technology would make the manufacturing of universal, high-quality cell therapeutics more cost effective. Therefore, it could allow future treatment of larger patient populations. And that could facilitate access for patients from underserved communities. "In order for a therapeutic to have a broad impact, it needs to be affordable," says Deuse. "That's why we focus so much on immune-engineering and the development of universal cells. Once the costs come down, the access for all patients in need increases." The researchers plan to explore the potential of HIP cells for treating other endocrine and cardiovascular conditions. Deuse explains that, because of the novelty of the approach, a careful and measured introduction into clinical trials will be crucial. Once more is known about human safety, he says, it will be easier to estimate when treatments using HIP cells might be approved and available for patients.

If you are interested in supporting healthy bone density and blood clotting, you may have been told to increase your vitamin K levels. However, not all vitamin K is created equal. This essential fat-soluble vitamin commonly appears as K1 (phylloquinone) and K2 (menaquinone) compounds. The K1 form of the vitamin is found in leafy greens and other plant based sources. And, while this is good for blood clotting, you don't get the additional benefits that vitamin K2 provides. So Where Do You Find Vitamin K2? Looking at dietary vitamin K sources, common foods that contain high amounts of this vitamin are liver and other organs meats, eggs, chicken, and eel. So you just need to consume more of these foods right? Well, not quite. There is actually another aspect to this vitamin which was explored in a study published by the journal Nutrition. The study took a look at a group of ten women in Japan, who were given two types of vitamin k2 homologues, to see which one was more easily absorbed by the body and bioavailable. Menaquinone-4 vs Menaquinone-7 Vitamin K2 consists of various homologues called Menaquinones. The most common one is found in animal products, such as chicken, eel, liver, and eggs. It's Menaquinone-4, also known as MK-4. This is derived from the conversion of menadione. The long chain version MK-7, on the other hand, is found in fermented foods such as sauerkraut, fermented cheese, curd, and the Japanese fermented soybean dish called Natto. These are the two types of vitamin K2 homologues that were tested in the above-mentioned study. The goal was to find out how they functioned in the body and to determine which one was better. How Did the Study Work? The ten women were split into two randomized groups. And each was given a concentrated form of either vitamin K2 MK-4 or vitamin K2 MK-7, after a moderate-fat breakfast was consumed. They prepared a baseline serum using 2ml of blood drawn from each woman, prior to administering the vitamin K2. The results were measured every second hour up to the first 24 hours, and then every 24 hours after that for three days. The second study involved having the MK-4 and MK-7 administered to ten women. They were split into a randomized group of five per group. The supplements were administered daily after supper for one week. Serum levels were also measured and analyzed. What Did the Studies Show? The results of the studies were quite impressive. MK-7 showed clearly in the serum results of the first study, at maximum levels after six hours. It was still present in serum levels for up to 48 hours. MK-4, on the other hand, showed no serum levels at any point in time. In the second study, MK-7 levels showed a steady increase while MK-4 levels did not increase. This is very telling. It indicates that MK-7 is the far superior type of vitamin K2, being easily absorbed by the body and presenting in nutritional blood levels. MK-4 is not as bio-available. And it would require a high dosage, due to its half-life, in order to present any benefits for carboxylation of osteocalcin. Furthermore, it didn't increase plasma levels, whereas MK-7 plasma levels showed a significant increase. Getting on the Vitamin K2 MK-7 Train With these studies in mind, you might consider whether you have a vitamin K deficiency. Have you been getting enough of vitamin K2? Here are some possible benefits from taking vitamin K2 MK-7: Improved blood clotting to support faster wound healing Stronger bones and improved bone density, due to the creation of a protein which helps to bind calcium to bones Enhanced heart function, as vitamin K breaks down calcium and improves artery wall function Improved cell function in various metabolic processes Vitamin Intake Via Food Sources or Supplements So, now that you know the best type of vitamin K to use, you need to find out what is the best source of it. There are food sources to consider. However, most of them provide vitamin K1 or vitamin K2 MK-4. Only if you consume very sp ...

Oncolytic viruses are "good" viruses that can specifically infect and kill cancer cells. Scientists at Luxembourg Institute of Health (LIH) are working on the development of new anticancer strategies and cancer treatments based on oncolytic viruses. The rat virus H-1PV is an oncolytic virus able to selectively infect and kill cancer cells, inducing their disintegration ( lysis ). And that stimulates an anticancer immune response, without harming normal healthy tissues. The LIH scientists have elucidated the mechanism through which the H-1PV cancer-destroying virus can attach to and enter cancer cells, thereby causing their lysis and death. "[We] sought to elucidate the features of host cancer cells that enable oncolytic viruses to effectively infect and destroy them, focusing specifically on the factors required for cell attachment and entry," says research leader Antonio Marchini in a press release issued by LIT. A research paper is published in Nature Communications. It indicates that laminins play an important role in how H-1PV kills cancer cells. Lamins are a family of proteins on the surface of a cancer cell to which this virus binds. They act as the 'door' through which oncolytic viruses enter cancer cells. "Essentially, laminins at the surface of the cancer cell are the 'door' that allows the virus to recognise its target, attach itself and penetrate into it, subsequently leading to its destruction. In particular, the virus interacts with a specific portion of the laminin, a sugar called sialic acid, which is essential for this binding and entry process and for infection," explains researcher Amit Kulkarni. The scientists identified 151 genes and their resulting proteins as activators and 89 as repressors of the ability of H-1PV to infect and destroy cancer cells. In laboratory tests, the scientists found that a gene called LAMC1 affects cancer cell resistance to virus-induced death in glioma, cervical, pancreatic, colorectal and lung carcinoma cells. "These observations indicate that elevated laminin expression is associated with poor patient prognosis and survival in a variety of tumours, including gliomas and glioblastoma. The encouraging fact, however, is that cancers displaying high laminin levels are more susceptible to being infected and destroyed by the H-1PV virus and that patients with these tumours are therefore more likely to be responsive to this therapy," adds Marchini. These findings have significant implications for the advancement of virus-based anticancer strategies. They also have implications for the prediction of a patient's response to this innovative therapeutic approach. Further research could lead to the classification of cancer patients in terms of their sensitivity and responsiveness to H-1PV-based anticancer therapies. This will, in turn, allow the design of more efficient clinical trials with reduced costs and approval times. And, ultimately, this could lead to the development of enhanced cancer therapies.

Knowledge workers who flourish in today's society are those who master the skill of deep work. Our technological age is drowning many of us in massive amounts of information. It can be hard to specialize, and even harder to focus. Distractions, competing for your attention, make focus a rare but necessary condition for success. When you're climbing to the peak of your professional career, the last thing you need is to be held back by untapped potential for learning and its application. Practicing the discipline of deep work, with the help of a natural cognitive-enhancing supplement, can take your accomplishments to the next level. The supplement I'm talking about is Synapsa Bacopa. Mother Nature has provided humans with a mental performance enhancer in the form of a natural plant extract. It can enhance cognition, enable memory consolidation, and boost cognitive performance outcomes. It can also help people get ahead of future age-associated memory degradation. Synapsa strengthens the brain's ability to store new information. It works by targeting the hippocampus, which is the part of the brain associated with learning and memory. Below, I provide information to help you become acquainted with Synapsa Bacopa. First, I summarize the science behind the supplement. Then I explain how it works and the benefits of adding it into your routine. The Science of Synapsa Bacopa The studies that I reference below are related to Synapsa Bacopa, which is the most well-studied standardized extract of Bacopa Monnieri. There are other extracts that are less-studied or non-standardized. I don't cover those here. Thrivous has published another article that provides a broad overview of the science behind Bacopa. Over the last 30 years, researchers have begun testing Bacopa on humans. Many earlier studies were on animals. Despite that, ancient ayurvedic medicine has been using Bacopa Monnieri on humans for thousands of years. Their reasons included anxiety, poor memory, and a desire to improve cognition. Modern researchers became interested in testing the effects of Bacopa on humans. The following studies of Bacopa Monnieri are eye-opening. Knowledge workers, whose professions rely on interpreting information, will find the studies particularly interesting. And the most proficient knowledge workers will rethink their performance-optimizing routine, in light of results that demonstrate cognitive enhancement. A 90-day double-blind, placebo-controlled study tested Synapsa Bacopa on spatial working memory. In those taking Bacopa, spatial working memory accuracy increased. 62 study participants finished the study with roughly 80% compliance in treatment. An earlier study tested Synapsa Bacopa on participants with age-associated impairment of memory. Participants did not display any mental illness, disease, or pre-dementia symptoms. Researchers observed improvement in logical memory and mental control. The improvement occurred as early as the fourth week and as late as the eighth week, depending on the participant. A 2012 study had similar results, demonstrating that memory recall increased after supplementing with Synapsa Bacopa. Speed of processing information improved with Synapsa Bacopa consumption, in a study from 2001. And a study conducted years later, in 2013, had results that further back up the previous findings. Benefits of Chronic and Acute Use Whether Bacopa Monnieri is used short- or long-term, there are benefits to be had. Evidence for these benefits is provided by the research mentioned above. Chronic usage of Synapsa provides natural memory support. Improved memory consolidation helps to preserve new information as it's learned. Previous learning becomes more accessible, leading to greater productivity. And higher-order cognitive processes are easier to maintain. Acute usage benefits are achievable on a shorter time scale. Remember how distractions are on the rise? Well, acute usage combats distractibility. With less distractibility ...

Intellia Therapeutics and Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, two biotech companies, have announced clinical data supporting the safety and efficacy of in vivo CRISPR genome editing in humans. “These are the first ever clinical data suggesting that we can precisely edit target cells within the body to treat genetic disease with a single intravenous infusion of CRISPR,'' says Intellia President and Chief Executive Officer John Leonard in a press release issued by the two companies. “With these data, we believe we are truly opening a new era of medicine.” Preliminary data from an ongoing Phase 1 clinical study of NTLA-2001 have been presented at the 2021 Peripheral Nerve Society Annual Meeting. NTLA-2001 is a genome editing candidate that is being developed as a single-dose treatment for transthyretin (ATTR) amyloidosis. The patients who participate in the trial receive a single dose of NTLA-2001 via intravenous administration. ATTR amyloidosis is a life-threatening disease characterized by progressive accumulation of misfolded transthyretin (TTR) protein in tissues, predominantly the nerves and heart. ATTR amyloidosis is a progressive and fatal disease that usually requires chronic, lifelong treatment. But now we can hope that a single injection of a CRISPR drug could treat this and other genetic diseases. A study is published in The New England Journal of Medicine. It reports that, in a small group of patients who participated in the trial, administration of NTLA-2001 had only mild adverse effects and led to decreases in the concentration of the TTR protein. A single 0.3 mg/kg dose of NTLA-2001 led to 87% mean reduction of TTR. A commentary is published in Science. It notes that, so far, CRISPR treatments required removing cells from a patient, modifying them with CRISPR in the lab, and then putting them back into the body. But in this case, a medical first, a non-personalized CRISPR drug injected in the blood has “nearly shut off production of toxic protein by their livers.” Another commentary is published in Nature News. It notes that the preliminary results of “this landmark clinical trial suggest that CRISPR–Cas9 gene editing can be deployed directly into the body to treat disease.” The ability “to edit genes directly in the body would open the door to treating a wider range of diseases.” “Thanks to large-scale human genetics research, there have been many new genetic targets identified and confirmed to have an impact on human health,” says George D. Yancopoulos, President and Chief Scientific Officer of Regeneron. “Combining this knowledge with the precision and enhanced convenience of a single CRISPR infusion unlocks new possibilities in treating - and potentially even curing - life-threatening and historically difficult-to-address diseases.” CRISPR pioneers Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna have been awarded the 2020 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for discovering “one of gene technology’s sharpest tools.” These new results suggest that we ain’t seen nothing yet. CRISPR is sharper than some may have thought, and could have a really world-changing impact.

Caffeine is known to have positive effects on physical and mental performance. Like most people in my part of the world, I ingest caffeine in the form of cups of coffee, without which I couldn’t live. Drinking coffee is less popular in other parts of the world. And not everyone likes coffee. However, more and more scientific studies recommend caffeine supplements in the form of energy drinks and pills. The positive impact of caffeine intake on intense exercise performance is confirmed by a study published in the October 2020 issue of European Journal of Nutrition. The researchers have investigated the effect of caffeine ingestion on whole-body oxidation during one hour of cycling at the intensity that elicits maximal fat oxidation (Fatmax). Twelve healthy participants performed two experimental trials after ingesting either caffeine (3 mg/kg) or a placebo (cellulose). Energy expenditure, fat oxidation rate, and carbohydrate oxidation rate were continuously measured during the trials. The results of the study suggest that a moderate dose of caffeine (3 mg/kg) increases the amount of fat oxidized during one hour of cycling at Fatmax. Therefore, caffeine might be used as an effective strategy to enhance body fat utilization. The researchers note, however, that caffeine can have unwanted side effects in people with hypertension or high sensitivity to caffeine. The effects of caffeine on muscle oxygen saturation during exercise of increasing intensity is analyzed in a study published in the November 2019 issue of British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. Thirteen healthy and active participants performed two experimental trials after ingesting, also in this case, either caffeine (3 mg/kg) or a placebo (cellulose). After waiting for one hour to absorb the substances, the participants used an exercise bicycle at increasing intensity with sensors (near infrared spectrometers) attached to the legs to continuously monitor oxygen saturation. Blood lactate concentration was measured 1 min after the end of the exercise test. It is an indicator of fatigue within exercising muscles. The results of the study indicate that ingestion of 3 mg/kg of caffeine improved peak aerobic performance and increased peak pulmonary ventilation. The results of the study also suggest that caffeine might have the ability to enhance oxygen availability in the muscles, and thus boost endurance performance. The researchers note that the well-known ability of caffeine to enhance physical performance and wakefulness has favored the inclusion of this stimulant in several over-the-counter medications and dietary supplements. Caffeine, which has the capacity to improve performance and increase endurance in a wide-variety of exercise activities when ingested at low-to-moderate doses (3–9 mg/kg body mass), is used by about 80 percent of competitive athletes. However, the physiological origin of the positive effects of caffeine is still poorly understood. And this motivates more research. Thrivous develops Surge Acute Nootropic to enhance energy and focus, when you need it most. Each serving of Surge provides 100 mg Caffeine, combined with L Theanine and Panax Ginseng. The combination provides additional cognitive benefits while boosting energy. Surge is available online in the Thrivous store.

Researchers at UC San Diego have re-created a bird's song by reading the song from the bird’s brain. This provides proof of concept that complex natural behaviors can be directly synthesized from ongoing brain activity. The research is applicable to the development of general purpose brain-machine interfaces. A study is published in Current Biology. It describes how the researchers were able to reproduce the songbird's complex vocalizations down to the pitch, volume, and timbre of the original. The study is a first step towards developing vocal prostheses for humans who have lost the ability to speak. "The current state of the art in communication prosthetics is implantable devices that allow you to generate textual output, writing up to 20 words per minute," says lead researcher Timothy Gentner in a press release issued by UC San Diego. "Now imagine a vocal prosthesis that enables you to communicate naturally with speech, saying out loud what you're thinking nearly as you're thinking it. That is our ultimate goal, and it is the next frontier in functional recovery." The researchers implanted silicon electrodes in male adult zebra finches. And they monitored the birds' neural activity while singing. Specifically, they recorded the electrical activity of multiple populations of neurons in the part of the birds’ brain that ultimately controls the muscles responsible for singing. Then the researchers used a machine learning system to create computer-generated copies of actual zebra finch songs based on the birds' neural activity. Instead of directly translating patterns of neural activity into patterns of sounds, the researchers translated the neural patterns into the physical changes in pressure and tension that happen in the vocal organs of singing birds. The researchers now plan to demonstrate that their system can reconstruct birdsong from neural activity in real time. When singing, birds make adjustments based on what they just heard themselves singing. This is also the case of humans when they speak. And, therefore, speech prostheses must be able to process human brain feedback in real time. A successful vocal prosthesis, explains Gentner, will ultimately need to work on a timescale that is similarly fast and also intricate enough to accommodate the entire feedback loop, including making adjustments for errors. The research is a cross-collaborative effort between engineers and neuroscientists at UC San Diego. "With our collaboration," concludes Gentner, "we are leveraging 40 years of research in birds to build a speech prosthesis for humans - a device that would not simply convert a person's brain signals into a rudimentary set of whole words but give them the ability to make any sound, and so any word, they can imagine, freeing them to communicate whatever they wish."