A virus previously known only from shrimp farms and fish is now linked to a serious eye disease in humans. Covert Mortality Nodavirus (CMNV) has been detected in over half of fish samples and nearly two-thirds of crab samples tested at markets and a new study in Nature Microbiology (March 2026) connects it to a persistent form of viral uveitis that can permanently damage the optic nerve and lead to severe vision loss. The biggest risk factors: working with raw fish and seafood, especially with skin injuries, and eating raw fish. The first reported cases are from China, but the virus appears to be globally distributed.

Nature Microbiology study describing the link between eye infections and CMNV [unfortunately behind a paywall]: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41564-026-02266-x

CMNV description from the World Organization for Animal Health: https://www.woah.org/app/uploads/2023/03/a-woah-cmnv-disease-card.pdf

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Krammer laboratory information

Krammer Laboratory at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai

Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Science Outreach and Pandemic Preparedness

Ignaz Semmelweis Institute

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Conflict of interest statement

The Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai has filed patent applications relating to influenza virus vaccines and therapeutics, SARS-CoV-2 serological assays and NDV-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines which name me as inventor. Mount Sinai has spun out a company, CastleVax, to commercialize NDV-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and I am named as co-founder and scientific advisory board member of that company.

I have previously consulted for Curevac, Merck, Gritstone, Sanofi, Seqirus, GSK and Pfizer and I am currently consulting for 3rd Rock Ventures (US) and Avimex (Mexico).

My laboratory has been collaborating in the past with Pfizer on animal models of SARS-CoV-2 and with GlaxoSmithKline and VIR on the development of influenza virus vaccines and therapeutics and we are currently collaborating with Dynavax, Inspirevax and Inimmune on development of influenza virus vaccines.

My work in the on immunity and infectious diseases in the US is supported by the National Institutes of Health, but also by FluLab and Tito’s Handmade Vodka. In the past I have also received funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, PATH and the US Department of Defense.

My work in Austria is supported by the Ludwig Boltzmann Gesellschaft and by the Ignaz Semmelweis Institute through the Medical University of Vienna.

Rhinoviruses are a highly diverse group of RNA viruses responsible for about half of all common cold infections and are something most people encounter multiple times in their lives. In this episode, Florian Krammer explains the biology of these non-enveloped viruses, their large number of strains, and how they infect the upper respiratory tract. The discussion covers transmission through aerosols, droplets, and contaminated surfaces, typical symptoms such as runny nose and sore throat, and why immunity is short-lived and strain-specific. It also explores why infections are usually mild but can become more severe in vulnerable groups, their role in asthma, and why vaccines and antiviral treatments remain challenging to develop.

Rhinovirus information from the US CDC: https://www.cdc.gov/rhinoviruses/about/index.html

Link between rhinovirus infections and asthma: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10314805/

Phylogenetic tree showing rhinovirus diversity. This high diversity is the reason why we get infected with rhinoviruses so often: https://www.nature.com/articles/srep34855/figures/1

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Krammer laboratory information

Krammer Laboratory at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai

Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Science Outreach and Pandemic Preparedness

Ignaz Semmelweis Institute

+++++

Conflict of interest statement

The Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai has filed patent applications relating to influenza virus vaccines and therapeutics, SARS-CoV-2 serological assays and NDV-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines which name me as inventor. Mount Sinai has spun out a company, CastleVax, to commercialize NDV-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and I am named as co-founder and scientific advisory board member of that company.

I have previously consulted for Curevac, Merck, Gritstone, Sanofi, Seqirus, GSK and Pfizer and I am currently consulting for 3rd Rock Ventures (US) and Avimex (Mexico).

My laboratory has been collaborating in the past with Pfizer on animal models of SARS-CoV-2 and with GlaxoSmithKline and VIR on the development of influenza virus vaccines and therapeutics and we are currently collaborating with Dynavax, Inspirevax and Inimmune on development of influenza virus vaccines.

My work in the on immunity and infectious diseases in the US is supported by the National Institutes of Health, but also by FluLab and Tito’s Handmade Vodka. In the past I have also received funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, PATH and the US Department of Defense.

My work in Austria is supported by the Ludwig Boltzmann Gesellschaft and by the Ignaz Semmelweis Institute through the Medical University of Vienna.

Lassa virus is a rodent-borne arenavirus that causes Lassa fever, a hemorrhagic disease endemic in West Africa with hundreds of thousands of infections each year. In this episode, Florian Krammer explains the biology of this ambisense RNA virus, including its segmented genome and how it interacts with the immune system. The discussion covers transmission through contact with infected rodents, human-to-human spread via bodily fluids, and typical symptoms ranging from mild flu-like illness to severe disease with bleeding, organ failure, and neurological complications. Particular risks for pregnant women and newborns, long-term effects such as hearing loss, and the overall case fatality rates are also addressed. The episode also highlights current limitations in treatment, the lack of licensed vaccines, and ongoing efforts to develop effective vaccination strategies.

‚Fever!‘ by John G Fuller describing the discovery of Lassa virus: https://archive.org/details/feverhuntfornewk0000full

‘The Lassa Ward’ by Ross Donaldson describing the situation of Lassa patients in West Africa: https://us.macmillan.com/books/9780312377014/thelassaward/

Multimammate mouse/rat: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natalmultimammatemouse#/media/File:Mastomysnatalensismammary.jpg

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Krammer laboratory information

Krammer Laboratory at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai

Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Science Outreach and Pandemic Preparedness

Ignaz Semmelweis Institute

+++++

Conflict of interest statement

The Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai has filed patent applications relating to influenza virus vaccines and therapeutics, SARS-CoV-2 serological assays and NDV-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines which name me as inventor. Mount Sinai has spun out a company, CastleVax, to commercialize NDV-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and I am named as co-founder and scientific advisory board member of that company.

I have previously consulted for Curevac, Merck, Gritstone, Sanofi, Seqirus, GSK and Pfizer and I am currently consulting for 3rd Rock Ventures (US) and Avimex (Mexico).

My laboratory has been collaborating in the past with Pfizer on animal models of SARS-CoV-2 and with GlaxoSmithKline and VIR on the development of influenza virus vaccines and therapeutics and we are currently collaborating with Dynavax, Inspirevax and Inimmune on development of influenza virus vaccines.

My work in the on immunity and infectious diseases in the US is supported by the National Institutes of Health, but also by FluLab and Tito’s Handmade Vodka. In the past I have also received funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, PATH and the US Department of Defense.

My work in Austria is supported by the Ludwig Boltzmann Gesellschaft and by the Ignaz Semmelweis Institute through the Medical University of Vienna.

Hepatitis B virus is a globally widespread infection that primarily targets the liver and can lead to chronic disease, cirrhosis, and liver cancer. In this episode, Florian Krammer explains the unique biology of this DNA virus, including its unusual replication strategy involving reverse transcription and its ability to persist in cells as a stable mini-chromosome. The discussion covers how the virus is transmitted through blood, sexual contact, and from mother to child, as well as typical symptoms ranging from mild illness to jaundice and, in rare cases, liver failure. While most adults clear the infection, chronic infections are common in infants and can have severe long-term consequences, affecting hundreds of millions of people worldwide. The episode also highlights the role of hepatitis D as a satellite virus that worsens disease outcomes, current treatment limitations, and the development of highly effective vaccines that can prevent infection and even reduce the risk of liver cancer.

Links to papers about hepatitis B from ancient times:

CDC information about hepatitis B: https://www.cdc.gov/global-hepatitis-b-vaccination/data-research/index.html

Nipah virus is a highly lethal zoonotic pathogen that can infect both the respiratory tract and the brain, making it one of the most concerning emerging viruses. In this episode, Florian Krammer explains the biology of this paramyxovirus, its natural reservoir in fruit bats, and how it can spill over into humans either through infected animals like pigs or through contaminated food such as raw palm sap. The discussion covers historical outbreaks in Malaysia, Bangladesh, and India, typical symptoms ranging from flu-like illness to severe encephalitis, and the very high case fatality rates observed in many outbreaks. While human-to-human transmission is currently limited, the episode highlights why this virus is closely monitored, as increased transmissibility could pose a serious pandemic risk. It also looks at ongoing efforts to develop vaccines and antibody-based treatments as part of global preparedness.

Contagion trailer: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4sYSyuuLk5g

WHO information about Nipah virus infections in 2026 in India: https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2026-DON593

Articles about human to human spread of Nipah virus: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6547369/ , https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2815955/ and https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2878219/

Information about the first outbreak in Malaysia: https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM200004273421701

Picture of a flying fox (they are VERY cute): https://www.dnazoo.org/assemblies/pteropus_vampyrus

Article about Camp Hill virus: https://www.uab.edu/medicine/news/microbiology/newly-discovered-virus-in-alabama-related-to-disease-causing-henipavirus-in-humans

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You can support the podcast via our German Steady page:

Questions, feedback or topic suggestions?

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Krammer laboratory information

Krammer Laboratory at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai

Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Science Outreach and Pandemic Preparedness

Ignaz Semmelweis Institute

+++++

Conflict of interest statement

The Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai has filed patent applications relating to influenza virus vaccines and therapeutics, SARS-CoV-2 serological assays and NDV-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines which name me as inventor. Mount Sinai has spun out a company, CastleVax, to commercialize NDV-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and I am named as co-founder and scientific advisory board member of that company.

I have previously consulted for Curevac, Merck, Gritstone, Sanofi, Seqirus, GSK and Pfizer and I am currently consulting for 3rd Rock Ventures (US) and Avimex (Mexico).

My laboratory has been collaborating in the past with Pfizer on animal models of SARS-CoV-2 and with GlaxoSmithKline and VIR on the development of influenza virus vaccines and therapeutics and we are currently collaborating with Dynavax, Inspirevax and Inimmune on development of influenza virus vaccines.

My work in the on immunity and infectious diseases in the US is supported by the National Institutes of Health, but also by FluLab and Tito’s Handmade Vodka. In the past I have also received funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, PATH and the US Department of Defense.

My work in Austria is supported by the Ludwig Boltzmann Gesellschaft and by the Ignaz Semmelweis Institute through the Medical University of Vienna.

ME/CFS (myalgic encephalomyelitis / chronic fatigue syndrome) is a complex and often misunderstood disease that affects the nervous system, immune system, and energy metabolism. In this episode, Florian Krammer explains the key symptoms, including severe fatigue, post-exertional malaise, sleep disturbances, and cognitive dysfunction, as well as the different levels of disease severity. A major focus is the strong link to infections, as many cases begin after viral illnesses such as Epstein–Barr virus, influenza, or SARS-CoV-2. Despite decades of research, the underlying mechanism remains unclear, with hypotheses ranging from viral persistence to autoimmunity. The episode also addresses the lack of biomarkers, limited treatment options, ongoing stigma, and why growing awareness—especially through long COVID—may help drive future research and improve care for patients.

CDC ME/CFS information: https://www.cdc.gov/me-cfs/about/index.html

Link to Columbia University ME/CFS center: https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/research/centers/center-infection-immunity/research/center-solutions-me-cfs

Article about termination of ME/CFS research at Columbia University: https://www.statnews.com/2025/03/19/myalgic-encephalomyelitis-chronic-fatigue-syndrome-columbia-program-shutdown/

Article about German funding for postviral syndrome research: https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-025-03904-w

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You can support the podcast via our German Steady page:

Questions, feedback or topic suggestions?

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Krammer laboratory information

Krammer Laboratory at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai

Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Science Outreach and Pandemic Preparedness

Ignaz Semmelweis Institute

+++++

Conflict of interest statement

The Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai has filed patent applications relating to influenza virus vaccines and therapeutics, SARS-CoV-2 serological assays and NDV-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines which name me as inventor. Mount Sinai has spun out a company, CastleVax, to commercialize NDV-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and I am named as co-founder and scientific advisory board member of that company.

I have previously consulted for Curevac, Merck, Gritstone, Sanofi, Seqirus, GSK and Pfizer and I am currently consulting for 3rd Rock Ventures (US) and Avimex (Mexico).

My laboratory has been collaborating in the past with Pfizer on animal models of SARS-CoV-2 and with GlaxoSmithKline and VIR on the development of influenza virus vaccines and therapeutics and we are currently collaborating with Dynavax, Inspirevax and Inimmune on development of influenza virus vaccines.

My work in the on immunity and infectious diseases in the US is supported by the National Institutes of Health, but also by FluLab and Tito’s Handmade Vodka. In the past I have also received funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, PATH and the US Department of Defense.

My work in Austria is supported by the Ludwig Boltzmann Gesellschaft and by the Ignaz Semmelweis Institute through the Medical University of Vienna.

Mpox, formerly known as monkeypox, is a double-stranded DNA virus closely related to smallpox that has gained global attention in recent years. In this episode, Florian Krammer explains the biology of the virus, its complex life cycle, and its ability to spread both through zoonotic transmission from animal reservoirs such as rodents and through human-to-human contact, including close physical and sexual contact. The discussion covers typical symptoms like fever and rash, differences between viral clades with varying severity, and the global outbreak that began in 2022, which spread to more than 100 countries. The episode also looks at the ongoing outbreak in Central Africa, the role of declining smallpox immunity in the population, and available countermeasures, including vaccines based on vaccinia virus and antiviral treatments, highlighting both the risks and the tools available to control future outbreaks.

Study showing the transmission of monkeypox virus from fire-footed rope squirrels to sooty mangabeys: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-10086-y

WHO information about mpox : https://www.who.int/health-topics/mpox#tab=tab_1

Pictures showing mpox rash: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mpox#/media/File:Monkeypox.jpg and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mpox#/media/File:22-1374-F1.jpg

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Support viroLOGICAL on Steady:

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Krammer laboratory information

Krammer Laboratory at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai

Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Science Outreach and Pandemic Preparedness

Ignaz Semmelweis Institute

+++++

Conflict of interest statement

The Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai has filed patent applications relating to influenza virus vaccines and therapeutics, SARS-CoV-2 serological assays and NDV-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines which name me as inventor. Mount Sinai has spun out a company, CastleVax, to commercialize NDV-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and I am named as co-founder and scientific advisory board member of that company.

I have previously consulted for Curevac, Merck, Gritstone, Sanofi, Seqirus, GSK and Pfizer and I am currently consulting for 3rd Rock Ventures (US) and Avimex (Mexico).

My laboratory has been collaborating in the past with Pfizer on animal models of SARS-CoV-2 and with GlaxoSmithKline and VIR on the development of influenza virus vaccines and therapeutics and we are currently collaborating with Dynavax, Inspirevax and Inimmune on development of influenza virus vaccines.

My work in the on immunity and infectious diseases in the US is supported by the National Institutes of Health, but also by FluLab and Tito’s Handmade Vodka. In the past I have also received funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, PATH and the US Department of Defense.

My work in Austria is supported by the Ludwig Boltzmann Gesellschaft and by the Ignaz Semmelweis Institute through the Medical University of Vienna.

Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) is one of the most common human viruses, infecting around 90–95 percent of adults worldwide. In this episode, Florian Krammer explains the biology of EBV, a herpesvirus with a large DNA genome and a complex life cycle that includes both active replication and lifelong latent infection in B cells. The discussion covers how EBV spreads through saliva and close contact, why primary infection in adolescents often leads to infectious mononucleosis, and how the virus can persist silently in the body for decades. EBV is also associated with several cancers, including lymphomas and nasopharyngeal carcinoma, and recent research strongly links EBV infection to the development of multiple sclerosis. The episode explores the evidence behind this connection and why developing an effective EBV vaccine could potentially prevent not only infectious mononucleosis but also some cancers and autoimmune disease.

Epidemiological link between EBV infection and multiple sclerosis: https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abj8222

Potential mechanistic link between (EBNA1 antibodies) between EBV infection and multiple sclerosis: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9382663/

Review about disease caused by EBV and potential vaccines and therapeutics (unfortunately behind a paywall): https://www.nature.com/articles/s41579-025-01181-y

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Krammer laboratory information

Krammer Laboratory at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai

Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Science Outreach and Pandemic Preparedness

Ignaz Semmelweis Institute

+++++

Conflict of interest statement

The Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai has filed patent applications relating to influenza virus vaccines and therapeutics, SARS-CoV-2 serological assays and NDV-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines which name me as inventor. Mount Sinai has spun out a company, CastleVax, to commercialize NDV-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and I am named as co-founder and scientific advisory board member of that company.

I have previously consulted for Curevac, Merck, Gritstone, Sanofi, Seqirus, GSK and Pfizer and I am currently consulting for 3rd Rock Ventures (US) and Avimex (Mexico).

My laboratory has been collaborating in the past with Pfizer on animal models of SARS-CoV-2 and with GlaxoSmithKline and VIR on the development of influenza virus vaccines and therapeutics and we are currently collaborating with Dynavax, Inspirevax and Inimmune on development of influenza virus vaccines.

My work in the on immunity and infectious diseases in the US is supported by the National Institutes of Health, but also by FluLab and Tito’s Handmade Vodka. In the past I have also received funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, PATH and the US Department of Defense.

My work in Austria is supported by the Ludwig Boltzmann Gesellschaft and by the Ignaz Semmelweis Institute through the Medical University of Vienna.

Human papillomaviruses are among the most common viruses infecting humans, with more than 200 known types and up to 80 percent of people exposed during their lifetime. In this episode, Florian Krammer explains how HPV infects epithelial cells and why certain high-risk types are responsible for the majority of cervical cancer cases. The discussion also covers transmission, persistence of infection, cancer risk in both women and men, and the evolutionary history of HPV, including evidence from Neanderthal genomes. A major focus is on prevention: modern HPV vaccines are based on virus-like particles that induce strong neutralizing antibody responses and provide long-lasting protection, with broad coverage against cancer-causing and wart-causing types. Vaccination before sexual activity is most effective, but benefits extend into adulthood, making HPV one of the clearest examples of how vaccines can prevent cancer.

New Study from Scotland about the long term effectiveness of the HPV vaccines: https://publichealthscotland.scot/news/2025/november/new-study-shows-long-term-effectiveness-of-hpv-vaccine/

Similar, very recent study from Sweden showing long term effectiveness of HPV vaccines: https://www.bmj.com/content/392/bmj-2025-087326

Story about HPV (and other pathogens) in Neanderthals: https://www.science.org/content/article/neanderthals-came-down-colds-herpes-hpv-more-50-000-years-ago

Story about Indian Prime Minister Modi announcing HPV vaccination campaigns in India: https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/major-boost-to-indias-healthcare-pm-modi-rolls-out-nationwide-hpv-vaccination-for-14-year-old-girls/articleshow/128876526.cms

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Support viroLOGICAL on Steady:

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Krammer laboratory information

Krammer Laboratory at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai

Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Science Outreach and Pandemic Preparedness

Ignaz Semmelweis Institute

+++++

Conflict of interest statement

The Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai has filed patent applications relating to influenza virus vaccines and therapeutics, SARS-CoV-2 serological assays and NDV-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines which name me as inventor. Mount Sinai has spun out a company, CastleVax, to commercialize NDV-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and I am named as co-founder and scientific advisory board member of that company.

I have previously consulted for Curevac, Merck, Gritstone, Sanofi, Seqirus, GSK and Pfizer and I am currently consulting for 3rd Rock Ventures (US) and Avimex (Mexico).

My laboratory has been collaborating in the past with Pfizer on animal models of SARS-CoV-2 and with GlaxoSmithKline and VIR on the development of influenza virus vaccines and therapeutics and we are currently collaborating with Dynavax, Inspirevax and Inimmune on development of influenza virus vaccines.

My work in the on immunity and infectious diseases in the US is supported by the National Institutes of Health, but also by FluLab and Tito’s Handmade Vodka. In the past I have also received funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, PATH and the US Department of Defense.

My work in Austria is supported by the Ludwig Boltzmann Gesellschaft and by the Ignaz Semmelweis Institute through the Medical University of Vienna.

Avian influenza, commonly known as bird flu, has become a global concern once again. In this episode, Florian Krammer explains the biology of influenza A viruses, how subtypes like H5N1 are defined by their hemagglutinin and neuraminidase proteins, and why segmented genomes allow these viruses to reassort and evolve. He outlines the difference between low and highly pathogenic avian influenza, the molecular basis of increased virulence, and the historical spread of H5N1 since the late 1990s. The episode focuses on the currently circulating clade 2.3.4.4b, its global expansion through migratory birds, large outbreaks in poultry, infections in wild mammals, and the recent spread to dairy cattle. While human infections remain rare and human-to-human transmission has not been observed, the episode explains why continued monitoring is essential, how reassortment with seasonal influenza could increase risk, and why preparedness today is far stronger than it was at the start of COVID-19.

Link to USDA data on H5N1 detection in mammals in the US: https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/avian/avian-influenza/hpai-detections/mammals

WHO H5N1 updates: https://www.who.int/teams/global-influenza-programme/avian-influenza/avian-a-h5n1-virus

Paper describing US human H5N1 cases: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12477757/

H5N1 review paper: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11998540/

Article about lethal H5N5 infection in Washington State: https://www.cidrap.umn.edu/avian-influenza-bird-flu/washington-state-officials-confirm-h5n5-avian-flu-patient-has-died

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Support viroLOGICAL on Steady:

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Krammer laboratory information

Krammer Laboratory at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai

Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Science Outreach and Pandemic Preparedness

Ignaz Semmelweis Institute

+++++

Conflict of interest statement

The Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai has filed patent applications relating to influenza virus vaccines and therapeutics, SARS-CoV-2 serological assays and NDV-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines which name me as inventor. Mount Sinai has spun out a company, CastleVax, to commercialize NDV-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and I am named as co-founder and scientific advisory board member of that company.

I have previously consulted for Curevac, Merck, Gritstone, Sanofi, Seqirus, GSK and Pfizer and I am currently consulting for 3rd Rock Ventures (US) and Avimex (Mexico).

My laboratory has been collaborating in the past with Pfizer on animal models of SARS-CoV-2 and with GlaxoSmithKline and VIR on the development of influenza virus vaccines and therapeutics and we are currently collaborating with Dynavax, Inspirevax and Inimmune on development of influenza virus vaccines.

My work in the on immunity and infectious diseases in the US is supported by the National Institutes of Health, but also by FluLab and Tito’s Handmade Vodka. In the past I have also received funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, PATH and the US Department of Defense.

My work in Austria is supported by the Ludwig Boltzmann Gesellschaft and by the Ignaz Semmelweis Institute through the Medical University of Vienna.