Chapter 35 begins with yet another commandment to keep Shabbat. The text includes a specific law this time:

“You shall kindle no fire throughout your settlements on the sabbath day.” (Exodus 35:3)

לֹא־תְבַעֲרוּ אֵשׁ בְּכֹל מֹשְׁבֹתֵיכֶם בְּיוֹם הַשַּׁבָּת׃

Why is this law singled out? The Gemara in Masechet Shabbat explains that the verse comes to teach that kindling fire was not permitted “throughout your settlements” but it was permitted in the Temple. This meant that the burning of the fats and other sacrificial rites that included fire were allowed. Later on, the Gemara connects this verse to the previous one:

“On six days work may be done, but on the seventh day you shall have a sabbath of complete rest, holy to God; whoever does any work on it shall be put to death.” (Exodus 35:2)

שֵׁשֶׁת יָמִים תֵּעָשֶׂה מְלָאכָה וּבַיּוֹם הַשְּׁבִיעִי יִהְיֶה לָכֶם קֹדֶשׁ שַׁבַּת שַׁבָּתוֹן לַה׳ כָּל־הָעֹשֶׂה בוֹ מְלָאכָה יוּמָת׃

If this verse lays out the prohibition against doing any work on Shabbat, why does the next verse mention lighting fire, only one of the 39 prohibited actions? The Gemara answers that the Torah is explaining that one who performs each of the 39 prohibited actions is liable for each individual one.

The Gemara in Masechet Sanhedrin learns something else entirely. The verse includes the word “settlements” (מֹשְׁבֹתֵיכֶם). Obviously one could not light a fire anywhere they live. The laws of Shabbat are on the individual, not the location. The use of the word “settlements” is meant to connect with the same word in the verse:

“Such shall be your law of procedure throughout the ages in all your settlements.” (Numbers 35:24)

וְשַׁפְטוּ הָעֵדָה בֵּין הַמַּכֶּה וּבֵין גֹּאֵל הַדָּם עַל־הַמִּשְׁפָּטִים הָאֵלֶּה׃

The Gemara connects the two uses of this word to explain that the court cannot administer capital punishment on Shabbat.

Ibn Ezra explains that because earlier in Exodus 12:16 the Israelites were permitted to cook on Yom Tov, the Torah needed to come back now and explain that Shabbat is different. Cooking, i.e., lighting a fire, is prohibited on Shabbat.

During the Second Temple period, the Karaites, a sect of the Jewish people who rejected the oral law, would take this verse literally and would make sure to not have any lights on Shabbat. Even a plain reading of the text counters this reading. The verse prohibits the act of lighting a fire—“You shall kindle no fire”—and not having a fire that is burning. Had that been the meaning of the text, the verse would have read “You shall not have a fire burning in your settlements.” This is why things like Shabbat lights and hot plates are all allowed on Shabbat as long as they were lit before Shabbat.

Similarly, the Essenes—another sect during the Second Temple period—held views akin to the Karaites, insisting on complete darkness on Shabbat as part of their strict interpretation. In contrast, the Rabbis composed the Mishnah’s chapter Bameh Madlikin (“With what may we light?”) as a direct response to these literalist claims, emphasizing that Shabbat lights are not only permitted but encouraged to honor Shabbat. This rabbinic stance reframed the verse as a prohibition on the act of kindling, not on enjoying light, reinforcing the oral tradition against sectarian extremes.

In chapter 34, God gives Moshe and the people a redo of the giving of the Ten Commandments. This time, God handles things differently. Moshe is told to carve the tablets himself:

“Carve two tablets of stone like the first, and I will inscribe upon the tablets the words that were on the first tablets, which you shattered.” (Exodus 34:1)

פְּסָל־לְךָ שְׁנֵי לֻחֹת אֲבָנִים כָּרִאשֹׁנִים וְכָתַבְתִּי עַל־הַלֻּחֹת אֶת־הַדְּבָרִים אֲשֶׁר הָיוּ עַל־הַלֻּחֹת הָרִאשֹׁנִים אֲשֶׁר שִׁבַּרְתָּ׃

The first time, God helped fashion the tablets. The first time, Moshe is told to bring the elders and Aaron with him up the mountain. This time, Moshe is told to go up by himself:

“No one shall come up with you, and let no one be seen throughout the mountain.” (Exodus 34:3)

וְאִישׁ לֹא־יַעֲלֶה עִמָּךְ וְגַם־אִישׁ אַל־יֵרָא בְּכָל־הָהָר׃

Both times God descends in a cloud, but the first time God calls out the Ten Commandments. This time, God calls out the Thirteen Attributes of God:

“The LORD passed before him and proclaimed: ‘The LORD, the LORD, God compassionate and gracious, slow to anger, abounding in kindness and faithfulness…’” (Exodus 34:6)

וַיַּעֲבֹר ה׳ עַל־פָּנָיו וַיִּקְרָא ה׳ ה׳ אֵל רַחוּם וְחַנּוּן אֶרֶךְ אַפַּיִם וְרַב־חֶסֶד וֶאֱמֶת׃

The rest of the chapter is very different. God repeats that He will wipe out the nations of the land, but then explains that the people must destroy all idols that they encounter:

“You shall tear down their altars, smash their pillars, and cut down their sacred posts.” (Exodus 34:13)

כִּי אֶת־מִזְבְּחֹתָם תִּתֹּצוּן וְאֶת־מַצֵּבֹתָם תְּשַׁבֵּרוּן וְאֶת־אֲשֵׁרָיו תִּכְרֹתוּן׃

God then talks about the three pilgrimage festivals and the sanctification of the firstborn:

“Three times a year all your males shall appear before the Sovereign LORD, the God of Israel.” (Exodus 34:23)

שָׁלֹשׁ פְּעָמִים בַּשָּׁנָה יֵרָאֶה כָּל־זְכוּרְךָ אֶת־פְּנֵי הָאָדֹן ה׳ אֱלֹהֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל׃

God then talks about Shabbat:

“Six days you shall work, but on the seventh day you shall cease; in plowing time and in harvest you shall cease.” (Exodus 34:21)

שֵׁשֶׁת יָמִים תַּעֲבֹד וּבַיּוֹם הַשְּׁבִיעִי תִּשְׁבֹּת בֶּחָרִישׁ וּבַקָּצִיר תִּשְׁבֹּת׃

Why does God use this opportunity to talk about destroying the idols and celebrating the pilgrimage festivals and Shabbat? The second set of tablets begins the transition from Mt. Sinai to the land. In the land of Israel, the people will need to be more self-sufficient and less reliant on God. These commandments are specifically tailored to that goal. God promises to wipe out the nations, but the people must play their part destroying the idols. The people saw firsthand what can happen when they are surrounded by idols even with the best intentions. Next, the people are told to come to God three times a year and to observe Shabbat. Notice how God connects these laws with agricultural concepts—the first of your harvest, the first of your fruits, cease to harvest, etc. The historical reasons behind these laws are missing because it is not about the past, but about how the laws will weave into the lives of the people in the land. This is also why God has Moshe fashion the tablets to show his partnership in the laws. God also calls out the prayer of the thirteen attributes and not laws brought down on high. If the people want forgiveness, they have to do their part and pray to God. Again, God is trying to instill a practical structure around these commandments geared toward a self-sufficient population in the land.

After the sin of the golden calf, God tells Moshe that an angel of God will now lead the people into the promised land. If God would dwell amongst the people, then God would end up destroying them because of their stubbornness. “When the people heard this harsh word, they went into mourning, and none put on finery” (Exodus 33:4).

וַיִּשְׁמַע הָעָם אֶת־הַדָּבָר הָרָע הַזֶּה וַיִּתְאַבָּלוּ וְלֹא־שָׁתוּ אִישׁ עֶדְיוֹ עָלָיו׃ (שמות ל״ג:ד׳)

Why did the people react this way? What is the “finery” that they removed? Rashbam explains that the verse should be taken literally, that the people were so upset with God’s message that they took off their jewelry. Chizkuni adds that it refers to jewelry and fancy clothing from Egypt. Rashi explains that the Torah is referring to the crown of Torah that the Israelites had received during the giving of the Torah. Haamek Davar also reads it as a metaphor—the people would no longer seek prophecy. Similarly, Rabeinu Bachya connects the adornments as a metaphor for the divine presence itself. When the divine presence was removed it was as if the people were naked. Malbim takes an innovative approach that the text uses the word “am/nation” to distinguish this group from the larger Israelite group. This smaller group did not participate in the sin of the golden calf and therefore they still had their jewelry to remove. This group was also the group that was ready to receive prophecy and now knew they could not without God’s presence amongst them.

The removal of jewelry was also a reaction to the golden calf itself. During the Yom Kippur service, the Kohen Gadol does not wear the golden additional vestments when he enters the Holy of Holies so as not to “remind” God of the sin when the people eagerly gave their jewelry to the building of the idol. Therefore, removing their jewelry upon hearing this news is a sign of seeking forgiveness and an understanding of what they did. This also connects with the answer to the first question—why did they react this way? The message from God was not all bad! He still promised to bring them to the land and to destroy the nations that lived there. Recall that the people sinned with the Golden Calf because they thought Moshe—God's emissary—was missing. Unlike Aaron, they could not comprehend that God did not need Moshe. Now that God informs the people that a messenger will travel in God’s stead, the people finally realize what they have lost. In the last chapter they removed their jewelry to build a replacement for God; in this chapter they remove their jewelry upon hearing that God is giving them a replacement instead of God.

The sin of the golden calf requires more than a short blog post to discuss. The dynamic between Moshe, Aaron and the people is one aspect that is integral to understanding the story. This dynamic is best compared to Plato’s Cave. In this allegory, there are people trapped in a cave who only see a shadow play on the wall. Their entire reality is based on this “show.” One day, a man escapes and sees the real world. He comes back to the cave and tries to tell people about the “real world.” Because the people lived exclusively in the cave, they could only comprehend things in reference to the shadows.

The Israelites are the people in the cave. They just spent generations enslaved in Egypt. They were immersed in the culture and would have had a deep understanding of Egyptian mythology. Moshe is the person who left. He has a full outlook on life outside Egypt. Aaron is in between. He was not as free as Moshe, but he was also not fully in the cave like the people. So when the people approach Aaron in a panic, Aaron tries to talk to them in a language they would understand without realizing the consequences.

The people are concerned that without Moshe they are lost. Aaron tries to answer their concern:

“This he... cast in a mold, and made it into a molten calf. And they exclaimed, ‘This is your god, O Israel, who brought you out of the land of Egypt!’” (Exodus 32:4)

וַיְקַח מִיָּדָם וַיָּצַר אֹתוֹ בַּחֶרֶט וַיַּעֲשֵׂהוּ עֵגֶל מַסֵּכָה וַיֹּאמְרוּ אֵלֶּה אֱלֹהֶיךָ יִשְׂרָאֵל אֲשֶׁר הֶעֱלוּךָ מֵאֶרֶץ מִצְרָיִם׃

In Egyptian mythology, the calf is the animal form of the goddess Nut. In the Book of the Heavenly Cow, which appears on the walls of the tombs of Seti, Rameses I, II, and III and King Tut, Nut as a cow carries Ra the sun god to the sky. Aaron may have been trying to show the people a calf without a rider to explain that God does not require Moshe. But the people do not understand. They think Aaron has made a god they recognize. Aaron in turn does not understand:

“When Aaron saw this, he built an altar before it; and Aaron announced: ‘Tomorrow shall be a festival of YHVH!’” (Exodus 32:5)

וַיַּרְא אַהֲרֹן וַיִּבֶן מִזְבֵּחַ לְפָנָיו וַיִּקְרָא אַהֲרֹן וַיֹּאמֶר חַג לַה׳ מָחָר׃

Notice how Aaron uses the Tetragrammaton but the people use the generic elohim. Aaron also delays the party until the next day when Moshe is meant to return thinking everything is fine. But when Moshe descends and it is clear that the people have misunderstood his message, Aaron has to explain himself:

“So I said to them, ‘Whoever has gold, take it off!’ They gave it to me and I hurled it into the fire and out came this calf!” (Exodus 32:24)

וָאֹמַר לָהֶם מִי־זָהָב הִתְפָּרָקוּ וַיִּתְּנוּ לִי וָאַשְׁלִכֵהוּ בָּאֵשׁ וַיֵּצֵא הָעֵגֶל הַזֶּה׃

Aaron explains to Moshe that the people misunderstood his message. In the end, God agrees. At the end of the chapter the people are punished:

“Then the LORD sent a plague upon the people, for what they did with the calf that Aaron made.” (Exodus 32:35)

וַיִּגֹּף ה׳ אֶת־הָעָם עַל אֲשֶׁר עָשׂוּ אֶת־הָעֵגֶל אֲשֶׁר עָשָׂה אַהֲרֹן׃

After the detailed description of the design of the Mishkan and the chief architects and builders, God reminds the people to keep Shabbat:

“And the Lord spoke to Moses, saying: Speak to the children of Israel, saying: ‘Surely you shall keep My Sabbaths, for it is a sign between Me and you throughout your generations, that you may know that I am the Lord who sanctifies you.’”

וַיֹּאמֶר ה׳ אֶל־מֹשֶׁה לֵּאמֹר׃ וְאַתָּה דַּבֵּר אֶל־בְּנֵי־יִשְׂרָאֵל לֵאמֹר אַךְ אֶת־שַׁבְּתֹתַי תִּשְׁמֹרוּ כִּי אוֹת הִוא בֵּינִי וּבֵינֵיכֶם לְדֹרֹתֵיכֶם לָדַעַת כִּי אֲנִי ה׳ מְקַדִּשְׁכֶם׃ (שמות ל״א:י״ב–י״ג)

What is the connection between Shabbat and the Mishkan? This is the first of a few times that the Mishkan is connected to Shabbat. The Gemara famously uses this connection to explain two points. The first is specific to the time period of the building of the Mishkan. As important as building the Mishkan was for God, it was not more important than the Sabbath. Therefore, the building of the Mishkan needed to cease on Shabbat.

The second is that the prohibitions of Shabbat are derived from the actual building of the Mishkan. The Mishnah in Tractate Shabbat chapter 7 lists 39 major categories of prohibitions on Shabbat:

• Sowing – הזורע

• Plowing – החורש

• Reaping – הקוצר

• Gathering sheaves – המעמר

• Threshing – הדש

• Winnowing – הזורה

• Selecting (sorting) – הבורר

• Grinding – הטוחן

• Sifting – המרקד

• Kneading – הלש

• Baking (or cooking) – האופה

• Shearing wool – הגוזז את הצמר

• Bleaching/whitening – המלבנו

• Combing – המנפצו

• Dyeing – הצובעו

• Spinning – הטווה

• Stretching threads (warp) – המסך את הנימין

• Making two meshes – העושה שתי בתי נירין

• Weaving two threads – האורג שני חוטין

• Separating two threads – הפוצע שני חוטין

• Tying – הקושר

• Untying – המתיר

• Sewing two stitches – התופר שתי תפירות

• Tearing for sewing – הקורע על מנת לתפור שתי תפירות

• Trapping – הצד צבי

• Slaughtering – השוחטו

• Flaying – המפשיטו

• Salting hide – המולחו

• Tanning hide – המעבד את עורו

• Smoothing hide – הממחקו

• Cutting to shape – המחתכו

• Writing two letters – הכותב שתי אותיות

• Erasing to write two letters – המוחק על מנת לכתוב שתי אותיות

• Building – הבונה

• Demolishing – הסותר

• Extinguishing – המכבה

• Kindling – המבעיר

• Striking the final hammer blow – המכה בפטיש

• Carrying from domain to domain – המוציא מרשות לרשו

. (משנה שבת ז׳:ב׳)

Each of these was an essential element of the building of the Mishkan. Symbolically, the connection also reminds the people that the relationship with God is not just a physical place in the camp. A relationship to God is also available to each person in their home when they set aside time every week to remember God by keeping Shabbat. That can happen wherever a person is in the world.

This contrast highlights two forms of holiness: Kedushat Makom—the sanctity of place, embodied by the Mishkan—and Kedushat Zman—the sanctity of time, embodied by Shabbat. While the Mishkan creates a holy space, Shabbat creates a holy moment that transcends geography. In Jewish thought, Kedushat Zman is often considered even more accessible, because every Jew can enter sacred time no matter where they are.

Chapter 30 discusses the golden incense altar. The altar was located inside the Mishkan structure in between the Shulchan and the Menorah right in front of the Holy of Holies. Why is the altar discussed here after the clothing of the Kohen Gadol and well after all the other vessels are discussed? Ramban explains that the altar is connected to the penultimate verse in the previous chapter where God proclaims that He will dwell amongst the people in the Mishkan. The incense altar is what allows God to dwell amongst the people because the incense represents the attribute of justice. Moshe will burn incense to halt a plague later. It is also why this altar has an additional explanation:

“Place it in front of the curtain that is over the Ark—in front of the cover that is over the Pact—where I will meet with you” (verse 6):

וְנָתַתָּה אֹתוֹ לִפְנֵי הַפָּרֹכֶת אֲשֶׁר עַל־אֲרוֹן הָעֵדֻת לִפְנֵי הַכַּפֹּרֶת אֲשֶׁר עַל־הָעֵדֻת אֲשֶׁר אִוָּעֵד לְךָ שָׁמָּה (שמות ל:ו).

Ramban’s interpretation does not fully explain why the altar is listed last. It could have been listed after the other vessels, but not after the whole ceremony for the priests. Sforno has the exact opposite opinion. He looks at the penultimate verse in the previous chapter as a conclusion of the previous section, not a link. Everything else in the Mishkan was meant to attract God to the space and make it a location for God to dwell amongst the people. The incense altar was there to thank God for dwelling and connecting with the people. That is why it comes after everything else. The problem with Sforno is that the seventh verse links the Menorah to the Altar:

“On it Aaron shall burn aromatic incense: he shall burn it every morning when he tends the lamps” (verse 7):

וְהִקְטִיר עָלָיו אַהֲרֹן קְטֹרֶת סַמִּים בַּבֹּקֶר בַּבֹּקֶר בְּהֵיטִיבוֹ אֶת־הַנֵּרוֹת יַקְטִירֶנָּה (שמות ל:ז).

It is possible that the golden altar is here to bookend the description of the Mishkan. The description started with the Ark in the Holy of Holies and then worked its way outside to the Menorah and the Shulchan, then the actual structure itself, then the copper altar outside and then priests. The Torah now comes full circle to the center of the holiest place right by the curtain.

Order in Text Element Theme

1 Ark (Aron) Covenant, Divine Presence (Holy of Holies)

2 Table (Shulchan) Sustenance, Material Blessing

3 Menorah Light, Spiritual Illumination

4 Tabernacle Structure Space for Divine Dwelling

5 Copper Altar Atonement, Sacrifice for the Nation

6 Priestly Garments Mediation, Representation of Israel

7 Incense Altar Intimacy, Prayer, Justice before God

This pattern suggests the Torah moves from the innermost sanctity outward, then circles back inward to conclude with the incense altar—creating a literary and thematic “bookend” effect.

After the descriptions of the priestly vestments, the Torah discusses the inauguration ceremony for the priests. Aaron and his sons are instructed to place their hands on various sacrifices and to be anointed with the special oil. Moshe is also instructed to:

“Slaughter the ram, and take some of its blood and put it on the lobe of Aaron’s right ear and on the ridges of his sons’ right ears, and on the thumbs of their right hands, and on the big toes of their right feet; and dash the rest of the blood against every side of the altar round about” (verse 20):

וְשָׁחַטְתָּ אֶת־הָאַיִל וְלָקַחְתָּ מִדָּמוֹ וְנָתַתָּ עַל־תְּנוּךְ אֹזֶן אַהֲרֹן וְעַל־תְּנוּךְ אֹזֶן בָּנָיו הַיְּמָנִית וְעַל־בֹּהֶן יָדָם הַיְּמָנִית וְעַל־בֹּהֶן רַגְלָם הַיְּמָנִית וְזָרַקְתָּ אֶת־הַדָּם עַל־הַמִּזְבֵּחַ סָבִיב (שמות כט:כ).

Why is the blood sprinkled on these specific extremities? One possibility is that the ritual links the altar with the priests. Moshe is also commanded to sprinkle blood on the horns of the altar and the sides. The priests, who are primarily responsible for the sacrificial rites, also have blood sprinkled on their extremities. Another answer is that the three sprinklings match three different commandments to the priests: one that they listen to God (ear), two that they perform the proper sacrificial rites (thumb), and finally that they walk in the way of God (toe). Yet another possibility is to emphasize that the priests are still human beings despite their involvement in the sacrificial rites, which are bloody and almost animalistic. Humans are unique with their cognitive abilities (ear), they have opposable thumbs (thumb), and they are bipeds (big toe). The three body parts also represent three sections of the body—the head, the trunk, and the legs. The priests then are being purified throughout their bodies and are reminded that their entire body now belongs to the service in the Mishkan.

The Kohen Gadol had two pieces of clothing that reminded him of the people. The first was the ephod. On the shoulder straps of the ephod were two stones. Engraved on these stones were the names of the tribes.

“Six of their names on one stone and six of their names on the other stone in the order of their birth” (verse 10):

שֵׁשׁ מִשְּׁמֹתָם עַל־הָאֶבֶן הָאֶחָת וְאֵת שֵׁשׁ הַשְּׁמֹת הַנּוֹתָרֹת עַל־הָאֶבֶן הַשֵּׁנִית כְּתוֹלְדֹתָם (שמות כח:י)

“Six of their names on one stone and the remaining six names on the other stone, according to their birth” (Exodus 28:10).

Were these the 12 names of the original sons, or the 12 names the sons minus Levi and including Ephraim and Menashe? Later in Devarim, when the nation is split into two groups on two mountains for the blessings and curses Levi is not included in the split. This could be a reference to the Urim v’tumim with six tribes on each side and “levi” in the middle, in this case the kohen gadol. Most likely though if the description talks about listing them in the order of their birth the list probably included the tribe of Levi. Rashi explains that the tribes were listed purely by birth. This order is different than previous lists of the brothers where they were separated by birth mother and order of birth.

The second piece of hardware that had the names of the brothers was the breastplate.

The Gemara explains that the king or Kohen Gadol could ask a question of God and the answer would be illuminated by the letters on the breastplate. The problem is not all the letters of the alphabet were listed in the names of the brothers. So the Gemara explains that there were two additional phrases listed on the breastplate. One was the names of Avraham, Yitzchak and Yaakov. That included the missing letter tzadi. To get the missing letter tet it also had the phrase “Shivtai Yeshurun” (שִׁבְטֵי יְשֻׁרוּן).

• The Talmud (Yoma 73b) states that the Urim (“lights”) illuminated letters on the High Priest’s breastplate, while the Tumim (“perfections”) guided the priest’s heart to assemble those letters into a coherent message. In this way the two objects worked together to send a message.

There was another symbolic message having the names of the tribes on the heaviest part of the vestments. The Kohen Gadol literally had the weight of the entire nation on his shoulders every time he wore the full vestments. This was a constant reminder of the weight and importance of his job.

The outer altar was made of wood and covered in copper. Covering an altar with a precious metal is a new concept in the Torah at this point. Throughout Genesis, many people built altars. Noah built one after the flood, Avraham built many altars at points of interaction with God. Moses also built an altar. For most of these altars, the Torah does not specify what material was used. Almost all of them use the verb “and he built” to describe their assembly. The assumption then is that these were all built out of stone. This differs from the copper altar.

In verse 1, God commands Moshe to “make” the altar:

וְעָשִׂיתָ אֶת־הַמִּזְבֵּחַ עֲצֵי שִׁטִּים חָמֵשׁ אַמּוֹת אֹרֶךְ וְחָמֵשׁ אַמּוֹת רֹחַב רָבוּעַ יִהְיֶה הַמִּזְבֵּחַ וְשָׁלֹשׁ אַמּוֹת קוֹמָתוֹ (שמות כז:א)

“Make the altar of acacia wood, five cubits long and five cubits wide—the altar shall be square—and three cubits high” (Exodus 27:1).

Stone altars would make sense for spontaneous acts of praising or thanking God. The builder would simply grab stones lying around in the moment. Those were the types of altars built in Genesis. The copper altar is unique in that it was built by the direction of God for future use and not around a particular event.

In Exodus 20:21, God commands Moshe to make an earthen altar:

מִזְבַּח אֲדָמָה תַּעֲשֶׂה לִי וְזָבַחְתָּ עָלָיו אֶת־עֹלֹתֶיךָ וְאֶת־שְׁלָמֶיךָ אֶת־צֹאנְךָ וְאֶת־בְּקָרֶךָ בְּכָל־הַמָּקוֹם אֲשֶׁר אַזְכִּיר אֶת־שְׁמִי אָבוֹא אֵלֶיךָ וּבֵרַכְתִּיךָ (שמות כ:כא)

“Make for Me an altar of earth and sacrifice on it your burnt offerings and your offerings of well-being, your sheep and your cattle; in every place where I cause My name to be mentioned I will come to you and bless you” (Exodus 20:21).

In the very next verse, God restricts the tools for use in building a stone altar:

וְאִם־מִזְבַּח אֲבָנִים תַּעֲשֶׂה לִי לֹא־תִבְנֶה אֶתְהֶן גָּזִית כִּי חַרְבְּךָ הֵנַפְתָּ עָלֶיהָ וַתְּחַלְלֶהָ (שמות כ:כב)

“And if you make for Me an altar of stones, do not build it of hewn stones; for by wielding your tool upon them you profane them” (Exodus 20:22).

Later, in Deuteronomy 27:5, God commands Moshe to build a stone altar by Mount Ebal:

וּבָנִיתָ שָּׁם מִזְבֵּחַ לַה׳ אֱלֹהֶיךָ מִזְבַּח אֲבָנִים לֹא־תָנִיף עֲלֵיהֶן בַּרְזֶל (דברים כז:ה)

“There you shall build an altar to the Lord your God, an altar of stones. Do not wield an iron tool upon them” (Deuteronomy 27:5).

The outer altar was covered in copper instead of gold most likely because of its size. Copper was readily available in the Near East. The fact that it was easy to find and malleable made it a very useful metal in the ancient world. The Talmud in Zevachim 60a explains that the outer copper altar was portable, constructed of wood and copper, fitting the movable Mishkan. Stone altars, mentioned elsewhere in the Torah (e.g., altars at Shiloh, Nov, Gibeon, and the Temple), were permanent structures. Rabbi Huna (cited in Zevachim 61) explains that stone altars were used in fixed locations, while movable altars relied on wood and copper for practical portability

The Midrash Tanchuma explains that because this altar was visible to everyone, unlike the golden altar inside, it was made of copper. Copper was used to atone for the nation as a whole when they acted as stiff-necked people based on a verse in Isaiah:

יַעַן יָדַעְתִּי כִּי קָשֶׁה אַתָּה וְעֹרֶף בַּרְזֶל מִצְוָארֶךָ וּמֵצַח נְחוּשָׁה (ישעיהו מח:ד)

“Because I know how stubborn you are—your neck is like an iron sinew and your forehead bronze” (Isaiah 48:4). The copper altar—set before them—served as a constant reminder and a means of national atonement.

“And make for the tent a covering of tanned ram skins, and a covering of Tchashim skins above” (verse 14)

וְעָשִׂיתָ מִכְסֶה לָאֹהֶל עֹרֹת אֵילִם מְאָדָּמִים וּמִכְסֵה עֹרֹת תְּחָשִׁים מִלְמָעְלָה (שמות כו:יד)

Two questions from this verse. First, why does the goat hair cover need two more covers? The second is what does Tchashim mean? Tchashim is translated as fine leather in some places. Tachash also means an aquatic mammal—like a dolphin or seal. It is unclear where the Israelites would procure dolphin and seal skins in the middle of the wilderness. Unlike goats or rams, these animals would not be domesticated simply because there would be nowhere to keep them! Josephus describes tachash as skins “dyed blue,” from dye taken from sea mollusks indicating a technology to color ordinary leather, not actual exotic marine mammal skins. The Talmud in Shabbat 28b says the Tchashim were unique sungle horned creatures that appeared to Moshe in the wilderness for this specific purpose and then were never seen again. Marine mammals like dugongs and some dolphin species naturally inhabited the Red Sea and Gulf of Aqaba—within reach of the Israelites during the Sinai journey. Their hides could have been harvested directly by Israelite groups or obtained from Red Sea coastal areas. As to the first question, Rashi quotes the Gemara in Shabbat where the rabbis disagree whether there were two covers on top of the goats hair roof or there was one cover made of two materials. Rashi’s answer implies that this secondary covering was purely decorative. Haamek Davar explains that “above” does not mean that these skins were on top of the goats hair roof, but that they were above the Holy of Holies only. “Above” means above the holiest part. Ibn Ezra gives a practical reason. This extra covering was meant to protect the Mishkan from the rain. This reminds me of my father and brother who both have rolled up tarps ready to spread over the Sukkah when it rains to protect the decorations and lights inside. Unlike the tarp, this roof is on all the time. It’s possible that Ibn Ezra arrives at this answer due to the use of marine animal skins. These skins would be best suited to protect the tent from water.