Plots and conspiracies abounded in the the late 16th and early-mid 17th centuries. And with them came the evolution of a newly-professionalised culture of subterfuge and spying. Paul and Miranda explore the murky world of early modern espionage with historians Nadine Akkerman and Pete Langman, authors of an intriguing new study of the spying tricks and techniques that developed rapidly at the time. We learn about the role of ciphers, micrographia and invisible ink, the creation of new state security networks, and the often overlooked role of women in transmitting forbidden messages, notably during the Civil Wars.

'Spycraft: Tricks and Tools of the Dangerous Trade from Elizabeth I to the Restoration', by Nadine Akkerman and Pete Langman, is published by Yale University Press.

To create your own cipher wheel, as discussed in the podcast, visit the 'Spycraft' website at https://yalebooks.co.uk/book/9780300267549/spycraft/

'1666 and All That' is presented by Paul Lay and Miranda Malins. The producer is Hugh Costello. Original music is by George Taylor. The episode was mixed by Sam Gunn.