The crushing Roman defeat at Teutoburg Forest marked the definitive end of Rome’s northern expansion, forever sealing the empire’s borders along the Rhine. The wild, untamed Germanic tribes and their rugged homeland proved unconquerable, resisting Rome’s might not through open battle but by exploiting the empire’s vulnerabilities with guerrilla warfare. This failure reshaped Rome’s strategy, forcing it to abandon hopes of dominion over northern Europe. In the centuries to come, the Germanic peoples would remain beyond the reach of Roman law, language, and culture—only to later descend into the empire itself, playing a pivotal role in its eventual collapse. This battle, therefore, not only halted expansion but set the stage for the dramatic shifts in power that would shape the future of Europe.

Teutoburg Forest. 9 A.D.
Roman Forces: between 15,000 and 18,000 soldiers.
Germanic Forces: between 20,000 and 30,000 men.

Additional Reading and Episode Research:

• Cary Translation: Cassius Dio. Dio's Roman History.
• Grant Translation: Tacitus. The Annals of Imperial Rome.
• Creasy, Edward. Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World.
• Dorenberg, John. "Battle of the Teutoburg Forest," Archaeology Magazine, 1992.

Some Historical Notes, Here.
[!] Subscribe to, and Share this podcast.
www.HistorysGreatestBattle.com 

Support the show

Social Media:
www.HistorysGreatestBattles.com
Youtube | TikTok

Support The Show:
https://covertwars.com

With Saladin’s decisive triumph, the era of European dominance in the Holy Land came to a crashing halt. His victory not only shattered the crusader kingdoms but also extinguished any lingering hope of Christian supremacy in the region. What had begun with the fire and zeal of the First Crusade, now ended in humiliation and loss. Saladin’s conquest marked the final shift in power, as the Holy Land, soaked in centuries of blood, was returned to Muslim hands, leaving Europe defeated, its dream of control over Jerusalem forever broken.

Hattin. July 4, 1187.
Crusader Forces: 1,200 Knights and 18,000 Infantry.
Muslim Forces: ~ 18,000 to 20,00 Soldiers.

Additional Reading and Research:

• Regan, Geoffrey. Saladin and the Fall of Jerusalem.
• Smith, Jonathan. The Crusades.
• Armstrong, Karen. Holy War: The Crusades and Their Impact on Today's World.

For Additional Addendum Info on the Crusades, Click Here.

Some Historical Notes:

1. The Eighth Crusade (1270): I mentioned that Louis IX laid siege to Tunis based on "mistaken information that the ruler there was interested in converting to Christianity." This is broadly correct, but historical sources differ on how seriously Louis believed this. Some suggest it was a pretext for the invasion, as his ultimate goal remained the conquest of Egypt or the Holy Land.
2. The Aragonese Crusade (1269): I described King James of Aragon launching this crusade under pressure from the pope. While this is true, it’s worth clarifying that this campaign, while labeled a "Crusade," wasn’t aimed at the Holy Land. It was more a political-military campaign against Moorish lands and their allies. The use of "Crusade" here reflects its religious framing by the pope, but it diverged from the more traditional goals of Crusades in the Holy Land.
3. The description of Saladin’s mercy and conquest: I stated that Saladin "returned the Holy Land to Muslim hands," which is accurate for Jerusalem and other key territories, but the entirety of the Crusader states didn't immediately fall after Hattin. Coastal cities like Tyre, for example, remained in Christian hands, and subsequent Crusades did briefly regain some territory, though without lasting impact. Additionally, the Treaty of Ramla in 1192 allowed Christians to retain access to their religious sites in Jerusalem, even though Saladin held political control.
4. The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204): I said this Crusade "never saw the Holy Land" and instead sacked Constantinople, which is correct, but the decision to attack Constantinople was also deeply tied to internal Byzantine politics, including the deposed Byzantine prince Alexios IV promising money and military aid to the Crusaders in exchange for restoring him to the throne.
5. Teutonic Knights shaping Poland and Germany: While it's accurate to say the Teutonic Knights had a significant role in shaping eastern Europe, particularly in Prussia, their influence on "Germany" and "Poland" as modern entities is complex. Their activities contributed to the formation of the state of Prussia, which later became a key player in German unification. Their role in Poland, however, was adversarial—they frequently clashed with the Polish crown rather than laying the groundwork for its development.

[!] Subscribe and Share this podcast.

Support the show

Social Media:
www.HistorysGreatestBattles.com
Youtube | TikTok

Support The Show:
https://covertwars.com

The English victory at Crécy announced their rise as a formidable military power on the European stage, while signaling the beginning of the long, inevitable decline of heavy cavalry as the dominant force in warfare. This shift marked a new era, where disciplined infantry and devastating long-range weapons began to overshadow the once-mighty armored knights.

Crecy. August 26, 1346.
English Forces: ~ 11,000 Soldiers of which ~ 3,900 are Men-at-Arms.
French Forces: ~ 60,000 of which ~ 12,000 to 16,00 are Knights.

Additional Reading and Research:

• Fuller J.F.C. A Military History of the Western World.
• Sumption, John. The Hundred Years War: Trial by Battle.
• Wailly, Henry. Crecy, 1346: Anatomy of a Battle.
• Allmand, C.T. The Hundred Years War: England and France at War.

Some Historical Notes:

1. "Began the long decline of the cavalry as the dominant force in the military": It’s important to clarify that Crecy marked the beginning of the decline specifically for the heavy, feudal-style, cavalry dominated by mounted knights in full armor. Cavalry itself didn't disappear but was gradually transformed over time. The introduction of longbows, and later firearms, made heavily armored knights increasingly vulnerable, but cavalry would remain important in new forms -- such as light cavalry and dragoons -- well into the Napoleonic era and beyond. We see cavalry start to significantly wane during WWI.

[!] Subscribe and Share this podcast.
www.HistorysGreatestBattles.com

Support the show

Social Media:
www.HistorysGreatestBattles.com
Youtube | TikTok

Support The Show:
https://covertwars.com

This battle shattered the Byzantine Empire once and for all, flinging open Europe’s doors to the advancing tide of Islam. It was the moment the Ottoman Turks seized their mantle as the supreme Muslim power, a position they would hold, unchallenged, for nearly five centuries—until the dawn of the twentieth century.

Constantinople. February - March, 1453.
Turkish Ottoman Forces: 90,000 Soldiers.
Byzantine Forces: ~ 10,000 Soldiers.

Additional Reading and Research:

• Fuller, J.F.C. A Military History of the Western World.
• Norwich, John. Byzantium: The Decline and Fall.
• Runciman, Sir Steven. The Fall of constantinople - 1453.
• Antonucci, Michael. Siege Without Reprieve, Military History Magazine, April 1992.

Some Historical Notes:

1. Constantine the Great established Constantinople as his capital in 330, not 323. While Constantine began work on Constantinople in the 320s, the formal dedication of the city as his new capital occurred in 330 AD.
   While my depiction of Muhammad's rise during the weakness of the Byzantine and Persian Empires is broadly accurate, it’s important to note that Muhammad himself did not conquer Byzantine or Persian territories; that was the work of his successors, the Rashidun caliphs, particularly under the leadership of Abu Bakr, Umar, and their generals in the early Islamic conquests. These conquests began after Muhammad's death in 632 AD. I have multiple episodes on this that might interest any listeners.
   
   
2. The term “Arab merchants” and the fall of Constantinople. The Ottoman Turks, not Arabs, were the ones who conquered Constantinople in 1453, and they controlled trade in the eastern Mediterranean afterward. Arab merchants had dominated long-distance trade earlier in history, but after the rise of the Ottoman Empire, the Ottomans themselves held much of the control over trade.
   
   
3. Mohammed II vs. Mehmed II. Throughout my account, I refer to Sultan Mohammed II (also spelled Mehmed II) arriving at the walls of Constantinople in April 1453. Mohammed II, also known as Mehmed the Conqueror, the son of Murad II, are interchangeable.
   
   
4. Venetian fleet and the siege timing. The mention of a Venetian fleet arriving too late and turning back upon seeing the fall of the city is often debated among historians. While it's true that various European states, including Venice and Genoa, were slow to respond, the role and timing of any fleets arriving too late or turning back isn't well-documented with clear evidence. It’s a compelling image, but historians still debate this. Some ships did manage to break the blockade earlier in the siege, but the idea of a "rescue fleet" arriving right at the moment of the city's fall is not confirmed by all sources.
   
   
5. Martin Luther and the Reformation connection. The fall of Constantinople in 1453 was indeed a seismic event that affected European politics, religion, and culture, but the link between this event and Martin Luther's Reformation in 1517 is more indirect. While the Eastern Orthodox Church’s survival under Ottoman rule certainly had an impact on European religious dynamics, Luther's movement was more directly a reaction to the abuses and practices of the Roman Catholic Church in the early 16th century, rather than a direct result of the fall of Constantinople.
   
   
6. The Hagia Sophia’s conversion timeline. I said that w

Support the show

Social Media:
www.HistorysGreatestBattles.com
Youtube | TikTok

Support The Show:
https://covertwars.com

The brutal massacre of the Incan warriors and the capture of their god-king cemented Spanish dominance over Peru, the richest prize in South America, a land dripping with gold and silver, now firmly under Spanish control.

Cajamarca. November 16, 1532.
Incan Forces: ~ 6,000 Warriors.
Spanish Forces: ~ 100 Infantry and 67 Cavalry.

Additional Reading and Research:

• Innes, Hammond. The Conquistadors.
• Means, Phillip. The Fall of the Inca Empire and the Spanish Rule in Peru, 1530 - 1780.
• Richman, Irving. Adventurers of New Spain: The Spanish Conquerors.
• Cieza de Leon, Pedro de. The Incas.

Some Historical Notes:

1. Atahualpa’s Alleged Massacre of His Brothers: While Spanish sources, particularly chroniclers like Pedro Cieza de León and Francisco de Jerez, assert that Atahualpa killed many of his brothers, the exact scale of this massacre is debated. The true number is uncertain, and Incan sources are silent or conflicting. 
2. Huascar’s Death: It's true that Atahualpa ordered Huascar's execution during his imprisonment, likely after hearing about the Spanish. The exact timing of Huascar’s death relative to the Spanish capture of Atahualpa varies in different accounts.
3. The Capture of Atahualpa and the Battle at Cajamarca: The massacre at Cajamarca wasn’t a full-scale “battle” by most military definitions. As I said, it was more of a calculated ambush where the Incas were taken completely by surprise. Atahualpa had come unarmed, believing the meeting to be diplomatic in nature.
4. The Ransom and Atahualpa’s Execution: Atahualpa did indeed offer to fill a room with gold and silver as his ransom, and the Spanish accepted this offer. The room, known as the “Ransom Room,” was filled with vast quantities of gold and silver. Pizarro and his men feared that releasing Atahualpa would allow him to regroup and lead an uprising. Hence, the execution.
5. Pizarro’s Governance and Rivalry with Almagro: Pizarro’s conflict with Diego de Almagro over the control of Cuzco is an essential aspect of post-conquest Spanish infighting. The territory division between Pizarro and Almagro, ordered by the Spanish Crown, created significant tensions, as both wanted control over Cuzco. It’s worth pointing out that Almagro’s son, Diego de Almagro II, led the faction that assassinated Pizarro in 1541, not necessarily Almagro’s original followers.
6. Pizarro’s Assassination: Pizzaro's death was part of the long-standing feud with the Almagristas (followers of Diego de Almagro), led by Almagro’s son. They stormed Pizarro’s palace in Lima, where he was killed. This event is well-documented and is a pivotal moment in the consolidation of Spanish authority in Peru.
7. The Spanish Governor and Imperial Administration: Following Pizarro's assassination, Spain moved quickly to stabilize the region by appointing a royal governor. Viceroy Blasco Núñez Vela was the first royal official sent to Peru by the Spanish Crown to establish direct governance, ensuring control over the vast wealth of the region.
8. Comparison to the Aztec Conquest: The comparison to the Aztec conquest under Cortés is valid, particularly in how both civilizations saw their wealth extracted, their leadership dismantled, and their cultures suppressed. It’s important to note that the Inca resistance continued for years after Atahualpa’s death. The final remnants of the Inca state held out

Support the show

Social Media:
www.HistorysGreatestBattles.com
Youtube | TikTok

Support The Show:
https://covertwars.com

Spain's crushing defeat signaled the onset of its empire’s long, inevitable decline. It shattered the illusion of invincibility that had shielded Spain for decades. In its place, England emerged as the undisputed naval power of the world. This victory at sea cleared the way for the English to begin their ambitious colonization of North America, setting the stage for a global empire that would reshape history.

Naval Battle of the Spanish Armada. July 29, 1588.
English Ships: 197
Spanish Ships: 130

Additional Reading and Research:

• Fuller, J.F.C. A Military History of the Western World.
• Martin, Colin. The Spanish Armada.
• Warner, Oliver. Great Sea Battles.
• Lewis, Michael. The Spanish Armada.

Some Historical Notes:

1. Regarding Spain’s decline, I said the Armada’s defeat marked its onset, which is true but gradual. Spain remained a major power well into the 17th century, despite this symbolic blow. The Thirty Years’ War and internal economic issues contributed more to its eventual decline.
2. I also said that England immediately became the preeminent naval power, but England’s supremacy on the seas developed more gradually, culminating in victories during the Anglo-Dutch Wars and later conflicts. The Armada’s defeat marked the beginning of this rise, but it wasn’t instantaneous.
3. In terms of colonization, I suggested that the Armada’s defeat directly led to England’s efforts in North America. While the victory did create a more secure geopolitical environment, England had already begun attempts to colonize before 1588, like Raleigh’s Roanoke colony. However, the defeat did pave the way for future ventures, such as Jamestown.
4. Finally, I implied that Spain’s defeat signaled an immediate end to its Catholic dominance. While the Armada’s failure weakened Spain’s ability to wage religious wars, it continued to be a leading Catholic power for decades and played a major role in the Thirty Years’ War.

[?!] Subscribe and Share this podcast.
www.HistorysGreatestBattles.com

Support the show

Social Media:
www.HistorysGreatestBattles.com
Youtube | TikTok

Support The Show:
https://covertwars.com

Marlborough’s triumph shattered the illusion of French invincibility, marking the first crack in the towering edifice of Louis the fourteenth's reign. From Blenheim onward, France’s dominance would wither, and the Sun King, as he often referred to himself, once the master of Europe, would watch as the brilliance of his empire dimmed.

Blenheim. August 13, 1704.
French and Bavarian Forces: ~ 56,000 Men.
Allied Forces: ~ 52,000 Men.

Additional Reading and Research:

• Fuller, J.F.C. A Military History of the Western World.
• Hassel, Arthur. Louis XIV and the Zenith of French Monarchy.
• Kamen, Henry. The War of Succession in Spain, 1700-1715.
• Chandler, David. The Art of Warfare in the Age of Marlborough.

[!] Subscribe and Share this podcast.
www.History'sGreatestBattles.com

Support the show

Social Media:
www.HistorysGreatestBattles.com
Youtube | TikTok

Support The Show:
https://covertwars.com

The crushing defeat at Culloden sealed the fate of the Scottish Catholic royal line, ending their final bid for the throne of Great Britain. It also reaffirmed the deep-rooted animosity between Britain and France, a rivalry that would only intensify with the outbreak of the Seven Years' War a decade later.

Culloden. April 16, 1746.
Jacobite Forces: ~ 5,000 Scottish Warriors.
UK Government Forces: ~ 9,000 Soldiers.

Additional Research and Reading:

• Gibson, John. Lochiel of the '45: The Jacobite Chief and the Prince.
• Hartman, Cyril. The Quest Forlorn: The Story of the Forty-Five.
• Scott, Sir Walter. A History of Scotland.
• Daiches, David. Charles Edward Stuart: The Life and Times of Bonnie Prince.

[!] Subscribe and Share this episode.
www.HistorysGreatestBattles.com

Support the show

Social Media:
www.HistorysGreatestBattles.com
Youtube | TikTok

Support The Show:
https://covertwars.com

The Prussian retreat at Valmy marked more than just a military withdrawal—it was the salvation of France itself. Brunswick’s decision to pull back shattered the illusion of an unstoppable invasion, leaving the gates of Paris firmly shut to foreign boots. This retreat solidified the strength of the French revolutionary government, whose grip on power tightened with each passing day. It was a turning point, the first great triumph of levée en masse, the revolutionary call to arms that swept common men into the ranks, transforming France into a nation in arms.

Valmy. September 20, 1792.
Austro-Prussian Forces: ~ 30,000 to 34,000 Soldiers and 54 Cannon.
French Revolutionary Government Forces: ~ 36,000 Soldiers and 36 Cannon.

* Author's Note on Pronunciation: I don't speak French. Apologies.

Additional Reading and Research:

• Fuller, J.F.C. A Military History of the Western World.
• Doyle, William. The Oxford History of the French Revolution.
• Lynn, John. "Valmy," Military History Quarterly. 1992.
• Rothenberg, Gunther. The Art of Warfare in the Age of Napoleon.

[!] Subscribe and Share this Podcast.
www.HistorysGreatestBattles.com

Support the show

Social Media:
www.HistorysGreatestBattles.com
Youtube | TikTok

Support The Show:
https://covertwars.com

The resounding American victory shattered British morale, forcing the English public to demand a change in leadership. The new government, facing the undeniable reality of defeat, initiated peace talks that ultimately secured independence for the United States.

Yorktown. September - October 17, 1781.
Franco-American Forces: 8,800 American Soldiers and 7,000 French Soldiers.
British Forces: 6,000 Soldiers, mixed between British and German (Hessian) Mercenaries.

Additional Reading and Research:

• Davis, Burke. The Campaign that Won America.
• Peckham, Howard. The War of Independence: A Military History.
• Chidsey, Donald. Victory at Yorktown.
• Hibbert, Christopher. Redcoats and Rebels.

[!] Support us by subscribing and sharing.
www.HistorysGreatestBattles.com

Support the show

Social Media:
www.HistorysGreatestBattles.com
Youtube | TikTok

Support The Show:
https://covertwars.com