John Vespasian

The largest successes and failures always start with a simple principle, namely, Aristotle’s principle of causality. If you understand it and adhere to it, you should do well in life. If you ignore its existence or fail to obey it, it will wipe you out. After Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) had rediscovered every key principle of Aristotelian philosophy, one might expect later generations to observe those principles, right? Actually not, explains John Vespasian. History is not linear. It often happens that key ideas are forgotten for decades or centuries. The truth can be long forgotten before it is again brought to light. Aristotle had outlined clear steps for achieving eudaimonia, starting with the identification of goals, the cultivation of skills and virtue, and the application of one’s energies to productive work. The practice of Aristotelian virtues leads to tangible benefits such as success, wealth, friendship and health. The principle of causality plays in your favour if you obey it. It helps you if you help yourself. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/aristotles-understanding-of-human-flourishing-and-success-compared-to-kants/

John Vespasian explains that Aristotle defined “potentiality” as “the capacity for change that creatures and entities possess.” In contrast, he defined “actuality” as the realisation of their potential. From this perspective, the whole dynamics of the world can be explained by the activities of creatures and entities to attain their potential. Thus, change of any sort (chemical, mechanical, biological, or psychological) can be regarded as potentiality turning into actuality. If you take clay and make a cup, you have actualised its potential. In doing so, you have applied your purpose (final cause) to a material to give it a specific shape (formal cause). In contrast to prior philosophers, and also in contrast to later philosophers, Aristotle applied the concepts of potentiality and actuality to morality. He regarded happiness (“eudaimonia” in Greek) as the ultimate goal of human life and self-actualisation as the primary path to happiness. For Aristotle, the concept of self-actualisation goes together with the concept of happiness, flourishing or thriving. Human happiness is a dynamic process whereby individuals become better versions of themselves. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/aristotles-concepts-of-potentiality-and-actuality/

John Vespasian explains that the concepts of potentiality and actuality occupy the central position in Aristotle’s metaphysics. They supply an invaluable intellectual tool to assess people and events for what they are, and for what they could become. Aristotle’s concepts of potentiality and actuality encompass three key ideas. Each of them has been proven by history, but was harshly attacked by its opponents. Let us explore these three key ideas in detail. The first key idea in Aristotle’s concepts of potentiality and actuality is that they possess a strong ethical component. They are meant to encourage people to become a better version of themselves, not to commit crimes or promote evil projects. When Aristotle says that person A has the potential to do B or become C, he is implying that person A will display virtuous behaviour in the process. Aristotle’s philosophy is optimistic and ethical. He is encouraging self-actualisation by means of honest, steady work. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/key-ideas-in-aristotles-concepts-of-potentiality-and-actuality/

John Vespasian explains that the books by Aristotle (384-322 BC) on metaphysics and logic are impressive, but we can draw practical lessons more directly by looking at his life. It’s a simple, straightforward manner to see philosophy in action. In 384 BC, Aristotle was born in Stagira, a small city on the northern coast of the Aegean Sea. Aristotle’s father (his name was Nicomachus) was the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedonia. Thanks to his elevated position, Nicomachus gave Aristotle the best upbringing available. The efforts bore fruit fairly soon because Aristotle possessed an insatiable curiosity. He wanted to learn all kind of things even before he could comprehend the benefits of pursuing knowledge and truth. His interests covered abstract subjects and concrete applications. In particular, he spent hours on end studying the local flora and fauna. Upon turning seventeen, Aristotle travelled to Athens with the goal of enrolling in Plato’s Academy, which possessed the best reputation amongst all schools. At that time, Athens’ philosophical discourse was dominated by Plato (428-349 BC) and Socrates (469-388 BC), but despite his admiration for them, the young Aristotle began to develop his own philosophy. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/aristotles-pursuit-of-knowledge-and-truth/

John Vespasian explains that Aristotle (384-322 BC) made four decisive contributions to philosophy. First, in metaphysics, he refuted Plato’s theory of forms. While Plato had believed in a world of pure abstractions (which he called “forms”), Aristotle emphasised observing the material world. Second, Aristotle came up with the concepts of substance and form. He asserted that each item is composed of substance and form. Substance refers to its underlying essence, and form to its individual characteristics. The combination of substance and form define the identity of each entity or person. Identity determines how an entity will behave, its present and future actions. Those are connected by relations of cause and effect, which constitute Aristotle’s theory of causality. Aristotle studied motion and defined four types of causation (material cause, formal cause, efficient cause, and final cause). The latter (final cause or purpose) is crucial for understanding human motivation and behaviour. Third, Aristotle reinvented morality in his “Nicomachean Ethics.” He argued that the goal of human life is “eudaimonia” (happiness, flourishing, thriving, fulfilment) and that the path to eudaimonia requires a virtuous life. Aristotle’s view of virtue is linked to individual happiness, not to supernatural edicts. He came up with a new art theory in his work “Poetics” and identified objective criteria for telling apart good from bad art, explaining the link between art and happiness. Fourth, in his work “Politics,” Aristotle examined all forms of government (monarchy, aristocracy, polity) and the risks of corruption that transform them into tyranny, oligarchy and mob rule. He favoured a mixed form of government where power is divided amongst the monarch, the aristocracy, and the people. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/aristotles-four-key-contributions-to-philosophy/

Aristotle (384-322 BC) outlined his philosophy of mind and consciousness in his work “Metaphysics.” For the first time in history, he proposed a universal method for analysing reality in all its aspects: the cosmos, nature, and human beings. John Vespasian explains that, to develop his views on mind and consciousness, Aristotle had to let go first of Plato’s theory of forms. Plato had taught in his Academy that, in addition to the present world, there exists one intangible world of pure abstractions, which he called “forms." In the Platonic framework, the key function of the mind and consciousness is to access the mythical world of forms. If you learn something, it means according to Plato that you’ve gained insight into the world of pure abstractions. Plato (428-348 BC) spent half a lifetime preaching about a world of forms that nobody could see. He attracted students to his Academy under the promise of helping them learn about the forms. He promised to open their minds and consciousness, but in reality, he was just feeding them mythical nonsense. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/aristotles-philosophy-of-mind-and-consciousness/

In terms of chronology, Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) preceded Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) by two generations. The worlds they inhabited were different, but Freud’s psychological insights rest upon the philosophy developed by Schopenhauer. John Vespasian explains that Schopenhauer outlined his philosophy in “The world as will and representation,” a book published in 1818. The theory of the will (“life force”) constitutes the backbone of his ideas. According to this theory, the will drives living creatures to ensure their survival and reproduction, and to seek short-term pleasure. Schopenhauer describes the will as blind, eternal, feral and indefatigable. If you are not alert, the will is going to control your life and prompt you to behave irrationally. Self-awareness is crucial to perceive and counteract the influence of the will. Freud outlined his psychoanalytic theories in books such as “The interpretation of dreams” (1899) and “Psychopathology of everyday life” (1901). He sustained that mental disturbance can often be traced to conflicts between social demands, rationality, and instincts. His definition of instincts resembles Schopenhauer’s description of the will, as a strong and relentless life force. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/schopenhauer-and-freud-similarities-and-differences/

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) did not acknowledge at every opportunity an intellectual debt towards Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) because he claimed to have come up himself with the theory of the unconscious (instincts) as a driving force. John Vespasian points out that anyone familiar with Freud’s and Schopenhauer’s ideas cannot possibly fail to notice the close similarity between Freud’s theory of the unconscious and Schopenhauer’s ideas, in particular, the theory of the will (“life force”). Freud published in 1914 his essay “On narcissism” in which he argues that a certain level of self-respect is necessary for a healthy personality. The problem arises when the individual is pushing his desires (conscious or unconscious) beyond what is socially acceptable. Schopenhauer’s influence is already visible at this stage. In “The world as will and representation” (1818), Schopenhauer had pointed out that the will (“life force” or “primary energy”) is often prompting humans to foolish behaviour. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/schopenhauers-influence-on-freud/

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) did not believe that real-life problems can be solved through psychological tricks. The purpose of philosophy is to understand the world, so that one can take real action to solve real problems. John Vespasian explains that, although Schopenhauer made contributions to psychology, his focus was on philosophy. He never lost sight of his primary goal, namely, to identify the principles driving the cosmos in general, and human nature in particular. In his book “The world as will and representation” (1918), Schopenhauer argued that living entities are driven by a blind, irrational force that he called “the will.” The theory of the will (“life force”) predicates that humans are driven to ensure survival, reproduction and seek short-term pleasure without thinking of the cost or the consequences. The will can be counteracted through prudence, foresight, and risk reduction, but those measures require steady dedication. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/schopenhauer-on-psychology/

In contrast to the fragmentary prescriptions often given by psychologists, Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) aimed at one comprehensive explanation for the world, including all living creatures. In his work “The world as will and representation” (1818), he argues that the will (“life force”) prompts all living creatures to ensure their own survival and reproduction, seeking short-term pleasure as well but without considering the costs and risks. John Vespasian explains that, according to Schopenhauer, human motivation is heavily in the sphere of influence of the will. Humans are often prompted by the will to engage in harmful decisions and behaviour. It’s a pressure that every person must face. Nonetheless, there are solid ways to escape or minimise the influence of the will. Schopenhauer presented those strategies in his essays published as “Parerga and Paralipomena” in 1851. Unfortunately, contemporary psychologists have overlooked Schopenhauer’s insights. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/opponents-to-schopenhauers-views-on-psychology/