Artistic contemplation plays a major role in the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860). John Vespasian explains that art conveys reality in an immediate manner, enabling humans to grasp crucial elements without need of complex explanations. According to Schopenhauer, artistic contemplation enables people to escape the dire influence of the will (“life force”) and increase their self-awareness. In his books “The world as will and representation” (1818) and “Parerga and Paralipomena” (1851), Schopenhauer shows how to avert the influence of the will and improve one’s life by making better decisions. Artistic contemplation constitutes a method to step aside for a while from the relentless pressure exerted by the will. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/schopenhauers-philosophy-of-art-and-beauty/

Despite his efforts to develop a coherent philosophy of art and beauty, Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) missed essential elements. John Vespasian explains that Schopenhauer's aesthetics theory is incomplete because it defines beauty as harmony and symmetry, that is, he exclusively refers to aspects perceivable by the senses. Why is Schopenhauer’s art theory incomplete? Because it is leaving out major art forms. His arguments about harmony and symmetry are applicable to paintings, sculpture, architecture or decorative arts. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/criticism-of-schopenhauers-philosophy-of-art-and-beauty/

For Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860), creativity is the key element in genius. However, Schopenhauer defined creativity in an unusual way. John Vespasian explains that Schopenhauer was not referring to the ability to create new concepts by recombining existing ones. No, he was referring to the rare ability to come up with breakthrough, surprising ideas. His theory of the will (life force) doesn’t attribute creativity to nature. Schopenhauer viewed the will as a wild, blind force that drives all living creatures to secure their reproduction and survival, and seek short-term pleasure regardless of the cost. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/schopenhauers-views-on-genius/

In history, only a handful of philosophers have endorsed the views on knowledge and learning developed by Aristotle (384-322 BC). John Vespasian explains that the opposition to Aristotle’s empiricism began before his birth, that is, with his predecessors, in particular Socrates and Plato. Socrates said that true wisdom starts with recognising one’s ignorance. Aristotle considered that wisdom should be measured only by objective standards. Truth must be universal or not at all. It is irrelevant if you fulfil Socrates’ requirement of recognising your own ignorance because the truth is not subjective. Plato theorised that human beings acquire knowledge in a mystical way by accessing the “world of forms.” Learning is in fact remembering, said Plato. He regarded pure abstractions as preexisting human birth. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/opponents-to-aristotles-views-on-knowledge-and-learning/

The sound principles established by Aristotle (384-322 BC) in the field of ethics were quickly abandoned. His philosophy of virtue and character development gathered a vast number of enemies precisely because it is fair and realistic. John Vespasian explains that it takes a long time to develop a virtuous character. Aristotle wrote in the second book of “Nicomachean Ethics,” that the development of virtues requires constant practice. There are no short-cuts to character development but the efforts are worth it. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/opponents-to-aristotles-theory-of-virtue-and-character-development/

Various thinkers have tried to put rational systems of virtues and character development into practice. John Vespasian explains that their attempts have attained success to the extent that they are aligned with the ideas presented by Aristotle (384-322 BC) in his “Eudemian Ethics” and “Nicomachean Ethics.” In those works, Aristotle outlines his five key ideas about virtue and character development. Let’s summarise those ideas. Aristotle placed at the centre of philosophy the fact that human beings are rational, or more precisely, the fact that human beings possess the capability to be rational. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/putting-aristotles-theory-of-virtue-and-character-development-into-practice/

Aristotle (384-322 BC) made a large understatement in his work “Politics” by writing that “education is the best provision for old age.” He should have written that “education is the best investment one can make.” John Vespasian explains that the acquisition of a good character (a virtuous character) is the key purpose of education. Aristotle wrote in book six of his “Nicomachean Ethics” that the primary goal of wisdom is to differentiate good from evil. In the Aristotelian tradition, character development includes knowledge accumulation (history, literature) and logic training (mathematical, causal, ethical), so that students learn to assess facts and draw correct conclusions. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/education-and-aristotles-theory-of-virtue-and-character-development/

Aristotle (384-322 BC) presented his theory of aesthetics in his work “Poetics,” which is primarily devoted to literature and theatre. For defining art, Aristotle employed the Greek word “mimesis,” which means “imitation.” John Vespasian explains that every form of art involves an imitation of reality according to the artist’s standpoint. The artistic imitation of reality can be more or less accurate, but needs to be recognisable. A random shape on a canvass, or a meaningless poem, do not constitute art because they have nothing to do with reality. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/aristotles-philosophy-of-aesthetics/

Aristotle (384-322 BC) outlined his thoughts on tragedy in his work “Poetics.” He regarded tragedy as an art form evoking pity and fear, leading the audience to gain emotional resilience and wisdom. John Vespasian explains that the process of gaining resilience and wisdom from tragedy watched on stage is called “catharsis.” The key plot element in a tragedy is that the hero (who is essentially virtuous) ends up destroying his life due to a judgement error. According to Aristotle, a playwright can raise the aesthetic effect of his works if he commits to unity of action, unity of time, and unity of place. Triple unity makes theatre plays easy to grasp for the audience. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/aristotles-thoughts-on-tragedy-and-literature/

Aristotle (384-322 BC) devoted his “Poetics” to defining art and beauty, especially in the field of theatre. For Aristotle, art consists of a reality imitation or reflection (“mimesis”) with a purpose determined by the artist. John Vespasian explains that the Aristotelian concept of art goes beyond defining what is pretty, pleasant or appealing. The goal of art is not to entertain or make your time more pleasant, but to identify truths that are not self-evident. Art conveys ideas that cannot be apprehended in the course of normal life. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/aristotles-thoughts-on-the-purpose-of-art-and-beauty/