John Vespasian

John Vespasian explains that, despite his enormous wisdom, Aristotle (384-322 BC) put forward the theory of the prime mover. He should have soon realized that the theory is false. Maybe he did realise, but the error remained uncorrected in the existing copies of his book “Metaphysics.” According to the prime-mover theory, there has to exist one eternal, intangible entity responsible for all events taking place in the world. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/critique-of-aristotles-theory-of-the-prime-mover/

The great Aristotle (384-322 BC) presented his thoughts on human nature in his three books “Eudemian Ethics,” “Nicomachean Ethics,” and “Politics.” He wrote or dictated them in the last period of his life after he had started his own school (“the Lyceum”) in Athens. What is Aristotle’s key idea on human nature? John Vespasian explains that Aristotle defined humans as “rational animals.” Compared to all other creatures, humans are the only ones that possess the ability to reason and choose their behaviour on ethical grounds. As a result of their rationality, humans are uniquely able to give direction to their lives. They can set long-range objectives and pursue them steadily. They can allocate their energies and other resources to achieve their goals as quickly as possible. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/aristotles-thoughts-on-human-nature/

The optimism found in Aristotle’s view of human nature has been rarely shared by other philosophers. While Aristotle (384-422 BC) regarded humans as rational captains of their destiny, most thinkers in history have considered humans as deficient creatures driven by instincts and social pressure. John Vespasian explains that Aristotle’s predecessor and teacher Plato (429-347 BC) gave his views on human nature in his books titled “The Republic” and “Phaedo.” In “The Republic,” Plato theories about the division of the human soul in three parts (reason, emotions, and instincts). The same three parts appear in Aristotle’s writings. It’s clear that he had taken over Plato’s theory almost verbatim. However, there are large differences between Aristotle’s and Plato’s views on human nature. Plato had sustained the theory that the human soul is immortal and that it preexists birth. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/opponents-to-aristotles-thoughts-on-human-nature/

Many philosophers have attacked Aristotle’s conception of human beings as rational and self-directed, capable of setting goals and making plans to achieve them, and driven to achieve happiness. John Vespasian explains that Aristotle (384-322 BC) presented his thoughts on human nature in his works “Eudemian Ethics,” “Nicomachean Ethics” and “Politics.” All of them were written or dictated in the years 335-321 BC after Aristotle had opened The Lyceum, his school in Athens. The optimism in Aristotle’s work is seldom shared by later philosophers. Aristotle viewed the achievement of happiness as normal. He considered that human beings are normally able to attain their goals by means of intelligent, steady work. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/critique-of-aristotles-thoughts-on-human-nature/

It’s unfortunate that modern philosophers have devoted vast efforts to attacking the self-confident and optimistic views put forward by Aristotle (384-322 BC) on human nature and life’s purpose. John Vespasian explains that Aristotle conveyed his main premise in his works “Politics,” “Eudemian Ethics” and “Nicomachean Ethics,” namely, that it is the essence of human beings to be rational. In contrast to all animals, we can think, assess facts, develop theories, draw our own conclusions, and test them against reality. While animals have narrow choices, humans can determine which goals to pursue, how to allocate their energies and their other resources, how hard and how long to work. Humans are uniquely able to shape their lives and make their own luck. Aristotle identified happiness as the primary goal of human life and defined ethics as the science of achieving happiness. In Aristotelian philosophy, virtues are defined as habits that lead to happiness, not as social obligations. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/modern-attacks-against-aristotles-thoughts-on-human-nature/

In contrast to thinkers preaching altruism and self-sacrifice, the theory of virtue developed by Aristotle (384-322 BC) aims at the achievement of happiness. John Vespasian explains that Aristotle regarded character development as a tool for facilitating happiness. Aristotle wrote two treatises presenting his theory of virtue and character development, namely, the “Nicomachean Ethics” and the “Eudemian Ethics.” He wrote or dictated those two works in the years between 335 BC and 321 BC, while he was teaching at the Lyceum, the school he had opened in Athens. According to Aristotle, the practise of virtues (which he had defined as habits that lead to achievement and happiness) helps not only the individual, but also society as a whole. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/aristotles-theory-of-virtue-and-character-development/

The influence of Indian religion on Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1960) falls within a growing interest of Western thinkers in Eastern culture. John Vespasian explains that, in the field of art, such a tendency has been named “Orientalism” and is observable particularly amongst French painters. In the period 1810-1820, Schopenhauer became acquainted with Indian philosophy by reading its foundational texts, that is, the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita. Those give an outline of the three key concepts in Indian religion, namely, the concepts of Maya and Atman. By “Maya,” Hindus mean a world perception that is tainted by delusion or prejudice. Hindus consider that we can perceive reality only through the veil of Maya, that is, in a distorted and biased manner. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/schopenhauer-and-indian-philosophy/

When Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) studied Indian or Hindu philosophy, he didn’t restrict himself to the foundational texts. John Vespasian explains that Schopenhauer read the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita but those lack the subtle interpretations made by Hindu thinkers across the centuries. Schopenhauer adopted early in his career some Hindu tenets and conveyed them, in his own words, in his book “The world as will and representation” first published in 1818. For instance, Schopenhauer wrote that the pursuit of short- term pleasure leads to disillusionment, because the hunger for additional pleasures cannot be stilled. It’s going to lead to more cravings, desires, and frustration. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/differences-between-schopenhauer-and-indian-philosophy/

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) deployed large efforts to study Christianity and Eastern religions. John Vespasian explains that Schopenhauer's goal was to draw the best ethical advice from religion. Although Schopenhauer devoted long years to studying religion, his theory of the will (“life force”) has no direct connection to religion and his ethics are equally far from divinities and devotionals. The key idea in Schopenhauer’s philosophy is that the world is governed by the will, that is, a blind, irrational force driving all creatures towards securing their survival and reproduction, and towards seeking pleasure. More often than not, observed Schopenhauer, the influence of the will has nefarious results. It generates short-term passion and desire, without assessing any risks and costs. Over time, it inevitably leads to failure and suffering. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/schopenhauers-views-on-religion/

Artistic contemplation plays a major role in the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860). John Vespasian explains that art conveys reality in an immediate manner, enabling humans to grasp crucial elements without need of complex explanations. According to Schopenhauer, artistic contemplation enables people to escape the dire influence of the will (“life force”) and increase their self-awareness. In his books “The world as will and representation” (1818) and “Parerga and Paralipomena” (1851), Schopenhauer shows how to avert the influence of the will and improve one’s life by making better decisions. Artistic contemplation constitutes a method to step aside for a while from the relentless pressure exerted by the will. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/schopenhauers-philosophy-of-art-and-beauty/