John Vespasian

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) built his philosophy step by step, starting with a central concept (the theory of the will), and adding layers of explanations. His physics, epistemology, logic and morality revolve around the theory of the will, and so do his views on the meaning of life. John Vespasian explains that, according to Schopenhauer, the will (“life force”) drives all living creatures to secure their survival and reproduction; at the same time, the will prompts them seek pleasure but doesn’t pay attention to the costs and risks involved. When it comes to the meaning of life, Schopenhauer agrees with Aristotle (384-322 BC) that happiness is the ultimate goal of humans; however, Schopenhauer’s definition of happiness is different from Aristotle’s. In the “Nicomachean Ethics,” Aristotle defined happiness as thriving or flourishing. Schopenhauer chooses a less ambitions definition. He talks about absence of suffering, peace of mind, contentment, and repeated pleasure. Eastern philosophies (Buddhism and Hinduism) contributed to Schopenhauer’s views on the meaning of life. They brought him to endorse mild asceticism as a defence against the chaotic pressure exerted by the will. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/schopenhauer-and-the-meaning-of-life/

Was Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) a subjective thinker? Did he reject an objective philosophy, where the concepts of good and bad are universally defined? What’s the difference between Schopenhauer and subjective thinkers? John Vespasian explains that Schopenhauer wasn’t a subjective thinker. His book “The world as will and representation” (1818) outlines the theory of the will, which sustains that all living entities are driven by a life force (“the will”) to ensure their survival and reproduction. The comparison with a subjective thinker is the best way to present Schopenhauer’s views on the meaning of life; for the comparison, John Vespasian chooses the archetype of subjective thinkers, namely, Emile Coué (1857-1926). Coué belongs to the generation born after Schopenhauer but he inhabited a world that, to a large extent, inherited the ideals and habits from Schopenhauer’s time. Bear in mind however that Coué regarded himself as a true scientist and his theories as scientifically proven. Indeed, he had studied pharmacy and practised his profession for decades; his experience convinced him that suggestion and positive affirmations do work. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/analysis-of-schopenhauers-views-on-the-meaning-of-life/

History provides compelling illustrations of the rhetoric and persuasion techniques identified by Aristotle (384-322 BC) in his work “Rhetoric.” John Vespasian explains that Demosthenes (384-322 BC), who was born in the same year as Aristotle and died roughly at the same age as Aristotle, gave inspiration for the Aristotelian principles of rhetoric. Demosthenes made repeated speeches in Athens, explaining the threats arising from King Philip II of Macedonia. Those speeches had the goal of convincing Athenian citizens to prepare the defence of their city against upcoming attacks from Macedonia. Pericles (490-429 BC), another talented speaker, was also Aristotle’s contemporary. His leadership in the Peloponnese War and his funerary oration in honour of the fallen Athenian soldiers exemplify the best in Aristotle’s theory of rhetoric. In the ensuing centuries, the Roman senator Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-143 BC) provides the best example of Aristotelian rhetoric put into practice. In addition to being a great speaker, Cicero composed a public speaking handbook (“The Orator”), where he expands the principles identified by Aristotle. Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (35-100 AD) took Cicero’s call for consistency between ethos, pathos and logos, and elevated it to a higher level. Quintilianus (“Quintilian”) compiled all his teachings on rhetoric in a handbook titled “Institutio Oratoria.” Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/examples-of-aristotles-theory-of-rhetoric-and-persuasion/

In contrast to his predecessors, Aristotle (384-322 BC) built his theory of knowledge on empiricism. The main principle of empiricism is that knowledge can only be gained from sensory experience before it can be assessed and refined. John Vespasian explains that Aristotle taught that humans start at birth with a blank mind (a blank slate) and will acquire knowledge through interactions with the external world. The Aristotelian syllogism is a deductive argument that is made of a major premise (“normally, the weather in Athens is warm in the summer”), a minor premise (“we are in the middle of July in Athens”), leading to a conclusion (“chances are that the weather will be warm today”). Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/aristotles-views-on-knowledge-and-learning/

Despite its innovative, accurate character, philosophers first rejected the philosophy developed by Aristotle (384-322 BC) on knowledge and learning. His empiricism fell into disregard, and his detailed causal analysis (material cause, formal cause, efficient cause, and final cause) was seldom taught to students. John Vespasian explains how Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153) was a fierce contender of Aristotle’s philosophy, and exerted great influence in medieval Europe. Bernard wasn’t alone in the efforts to wipe out all memories of Aristotelian philosophy. To a great extent, he had based his mysticism on the works of Augustine (454-430 AD). Fortunately but unexpectedly, the tide turned a century after Bernard’s death. Thomas Aquinas (1125-1274) devoted large efforts to populating Aristotelian logic and making it compatible with Christianity. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/impact-of-aristotles-views-on-knowledge-and-learning/

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) never wrote any novels, but his ideas have influenced important authors and shaped their novels. John Vespasian explains that Schopenhauer’s influence on literature has taken place more in the novels’ atmosphere than in their explicit philosophy. He also comments on Schopenhauer's influence on Franz Kafka and other major authors. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/schopenhauers-influence-on-literature/

Aristotle (384-322 BC) outlined his philosophy of education primarily in his works “Eudemian Ethics” and “Nicomachean Ethics.” John Vespasian explains that the Aristotelian formula for education revolves around the concept of virtue, that is, that the purpose of education is to equip students with physical, moral and intellectual habits enabling them to achieve “eudaimonia.” How should we translate the Greek term “eudaimonia” that appears in Aristotle’s works? Medieval translators had mostly transcribed “eudaimonia” as “happiness.” In later centuries, we can find translations employing the words “human flourishing” and “human thriving.” Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/aristotles-views-on-education/

After Aristotle’s death in 322 BC, it did not take long for the world to forget his contributions to educational theory. John Vespasian explains how the Aristotelian idea that the purpose of life is happiness received attacks from all sides. In contrast to Aristotle’s educational advice (i.e., teach students to become virtuous, so that they can achieve happiness), the education in ensuing centuries concentrated on learning facts and acquiring skills. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/opponents-to-aristotles-views-on-education/

After the disastrous distortions introduced in late Antiquity, it took centuries to put into practice the views that Aristotle (384-322 BC) had developed on education. John Vespasian explains that Aristotelian educational ideas emanate from the Aristotelian ethics. If happiness is the goal, and virtue shows the path, then the purpose of education is to teach virtue. Each student should learn ethics and acquire good habits (virtues) that will lead him to happiness. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/putting-aristotles-views-on-education-into-practice/

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) produced a philosophical system that revolves around the theory of the will (“life force”), which he regarded as the prime mover of all living entities. John Vespasian passes review to Schopenhauer’s main ideas. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/schopenhauers-main-ideas/