Learning by William

References

White Dwarf - COSMOS

https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/W/White+Dwarf

White Dwarf - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_dwarf

Electron Degeneracy Pressure - COSMOS

https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/E/electron+degeneracy+pressure

Pauli Exclusion Principle and Atomic Energy Levels - Khan Academy

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/quantum-physics/atoms-and-electrons/v/atomic-energy-levels

Orbital Energy States - LibreTexts

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/07%3A_Atomic_Structure_and_Periodicity/12.09%3A_Orbital_Shapes_and_Energies

How Long Does it Take for a White Dwarf to Become a Black Dwarf? - Astronomy

https://astronomy.com/news-observing/ask%20astro/2004/12/how%20long%20does%20it%20take%20for%20a%20white%20dwarf%20to%20turn%20into%20a%20black%20dwarf

Core Collapse - COSMOS

https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/c/core-collapse

Photodisintegration - COSMOS

https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/P/Photodisintegration

Types of Neutron Stars - Wikibooks

https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Pulsars_and_neutron_stars/Neutron_star_properties

Hypothesized Magnetar Formation Process - European Southern Observatory

https://www.eso.org/public/news/eso1415/

Low Mass X-Ray Binary - COSMOS

https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/L/Low-mass+X-ray+Binaries

High Mass X-Ray Binary - COSMOS

https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/h/High-mass+X-ray+Binaries

Neutron Stars - University of Maryland (touring this school in summer 2021)

https://www.astro.umd.edu/~miller/nstar.html

Quark Star - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark_star

Chances are, you have seen the night sky before. Thou looketh to the Heavens: what does thou see? It is likely that one sees a few, or a few thousand, glimmering stars, some shining brighter than others; some orange, red, blue; some massive, some small; some luminous, some dim. It is likely that you have seen at least a somewhat dark night sky sometime in your past life, as I assume most of you have gone camping or hiking or biking, sometimes, or often if you are similar to I, during the night. In the Northern winter, the night sky is bedazzling your eyes with thousands of points of beauty, as it does in the summer. In the Northern winter, the brightest of the stars show their brilliance and luminance to our eyes; Sirius, Regulus, Adhara, Betelgeuse, Rigel, Aldebaran, Procyon, Capella, Bellatrix, Alnitak, Alnilam, and Mintaka all showcase their complexion during these months. In the Northern summer, the Milky Way, the dense band of stars that appears to us as a glimmering wave of milk, conveys its own particular brilliance. In the Northern summer, the brilliantly-lit Deneb, Vega, Altair, Antares, Arcturus, Sadr, and the great stars of Sagittarius and Ursa Major dominate our vision. Upon seeing this prodigious assemblage of nuclear fusion, our brains begin to fail to understand the immensity of the universe in which we live. Even when gazing upon the meager 3,000 visible stars in our night sky, we are humbled by the formidable collection which exists above our heads. This episode and the subsequent episode delves deep into the great stellar immensities lying below our noses.

References

Main Sequence Star - Space.com

https://www.space.com/22437-main-sequence-stars.html

Main Sequence - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_sequence

Asymptotic Giant Branch - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptotic_giant_branch

Hypergiant Star - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypergiant

As I was interested in the topic of supersymmetry, I decided to add it to the list of chapter nodes, this one being chapter 26. As I assume is known, today, the concept that is to be understood is the concept of supersymmetry and its role in physics, astronomy, and quantum mechanics.

References

Supersymmetry - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry

Bosonic Quantum States - StackExchange

https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/59929/what-prevents-bosons-from-occupying-the-same-location

Supersymmetry - CERN

https://home.cern/science/physics/supersymmetry

Fermion - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermion

Boson - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boson

Anthropic Principle - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_principle

Attempting to Observe Superpartners at CERN - uchicago news

https://news.uchicago.edu/story/search-lifetime-supersymmetric-particles-cern

In this episode, we will be covering Hilbert Space and its importance in quantum mechanics. Please cut me some slack because this topic combines abstract algebra with advanced calculus, both of which I do not know. The history of Hilbert Space and the application of it into quantum mechanics should be simple, but its application and derivation surrounding mathematics will likely stump me; I know the English language, but not integrals and multivariable vector calculus. But anyways, let’s explore the foundation of something I do not understand and the foundation of quantum mechanics, Hilbert space.

Hilbert Space - Quantiki

https://www.quantiki.org/wiki/hilbert-spaces

Hilbert Space - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilbert_space

Vector Calculus - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_calculus

Euclidean Space - Britannica

https://www.britannica.com/science/Euclidean-space

Vector Calculus

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/vecal.html

Quick Hilbert Space Video - Physics World

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zASzj4DkZXY

Hilbert Space - Britannica

https://www.britannica.com/science/Hilbert-space

Functional Analysis - Britannica

https://www.britannica.com/science/functional-analysis-mathematics

Vector Fields - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_field

Probability Density Function - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_density_function

From where did we originate? How did we develop highly organized societies and civilizations? From what species did we diverge? What made humans different from their ape relatives and ancestors? What traits about humans are most unique and invigorating? These questions, and many more, will be answered in today’s episode, where we explore the birth of our genus, homo, and the birth of our species, the homo sapien.

References

Homo sapien - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human

Australopithecines - ScienceDirect

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128026526000104

Hominidae - PBS

https://nhpbs.org/wild/hominidae.asp

Human Evolution - Smithsonian

https://humanorigins.si.edu/education/introduction-human-evolution

Origin of the Primate Order

https://www2.palomar.edu/anthro/earlyprimates/early_2.htm

Origin of the Homo sapien - The Royal Society

https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2015.0237

Where the Homo sapien Originated - Australian Museum

https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/when-and-where-did-our-species-originate/

Notable Traits Unique to Humans - LiveScience

https://www.livescience.com/15689-evolution-human-special-species.html

Neolithic Revolution - History

https://www.history.com/topics/pre-history/neolithic-revolution

Homosexuality Activities in Other Animals - BBC Earth

http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20150206-are-there-any-homosexual-animals

In April of 2019, scientists and radio astronomers around the world came together to share the world’s first image of a black hole. In a stunning polynational consortium, radio astronomers from 20 different countries utilized their radio telescopes to image the black hole in the center of Messier 87, the largest object on the entire Messier catalogue of 110 objects. This consortium used many of the world’s most prestigious telescopes, along with atomic clocks, two custom built supercomputers (think about that custom built computer at your friend’s house and multiply that by 150,000), and several new computational techniques in image acquisition, to take this incredible image of the black hole. Messier 87 itself is black, but is lit up by an intense glow of radiation that surrounds it; when I see this, I think about a star being engulfed by this enormous black hole. The astronomers were able to image the radio waves emanating from this source and capture the black hole itself, specifically the ultra-dark, round source existing in the middle of the image. This image is often considered among the most important images ever taken, excluding, potentially, the first Hubble deep field and pale blue dot.

References:

Humans Could Enter a Black Hole ‘Safely’ - ScienceAlert

https://www.sciencealert.com/what-would-happen-if-a-human-tried-to-enter-a-black-hole-to-study-it

Black Hole - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole

Idealization (Science Philosophy) - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealization_(science_philosophy)

Point Particle - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_particle#Point_mass

Black Hole - Cosmos

https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/b/black+hole

Singularity - Physics of the Universe

https://www.physicsoftheuniverse.com/topics_blackholes_singularities.html

Black Hole Information Paradox - Space.com

https://www.space.com/black-hole-information-paradox-mystery.html

String Theory - LIVESCIENCE

https://www.livescience.com/65033-what-is-string-theory.html

Nearing the End of the Information Paradox - Quantamagazine

https://www.quantamagazine.org/the-black-hole-information-paradox-comes-to-an-end-20201029/

After conducting numerous episodes of astrophysics and quantum mechanics, I feel that I am finally dipping my toes into the ocean of physics that exists right below my nose. I feel that I am finally able to explain, though with a rudimentary understanding of the topic, the pillars of quantum mechanics. I thought I would make this episode to humble myself and prove to myself that I do not, at all, have even a rudimentary understanding of the wild west of astrophysics: quantum mechanics. Even so, in our relentless pursuit of knowledge and understanding, we stumble upon the greatness of quantum entanglement, a tremendous topic that humbles and horrifies the human brain.

References

Quantum Entanglement - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_entanglement

Quantum Superposition - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_superposition

Superposition - The Physics of the Universe

https://www.physicsoftheuniverse.com/topics_quantum_superposition.html

EPR Paradox - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPR_paradox

Superdeterminism - frontiers in Physics

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphy.2020.00139/full

Principle of Locality - Quantum Physics Lady

http://www.quantumphysicslady.org/glossary/locality/

Bell’s Theorem - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/bell-theorem/

Photon Split - Scientific American

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/photons-meet-with-three-split/

Billions of Quantum Entangled Particles Found in Strange Mineral - ScienceDaily

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/01/200116144105.htm

“Everything is Entangled” - Cornell University

https://arxiv.org/abs/1205.1584

Are all particles in the universe quantum-entangled, since they all emerged from a single entity? - Quora

https://www.quora.com/Are-all-particles-in-the-universe-quantum-entangled-since-they-all-emerged-from-a-single-entity

For hundreds of thousands of years, humans have stared up at their night sky in spectacular wonder; lined with thousands of stars, some bright, some faint, and 5 particular wanderers we now know as planets, our human ancestors found great indulgence in the night sky. With the beautiful beams of light shining through the night, there exists another, less luminous band of haze that appears throughout the northern summer and a very faint band that appears throughout the northern winter. This diffuse and branching pattern of haze in the night sky came to be referred to in the western world as the Milky Way, whose name derived from a Greek myth about the Goddess Hera who sprayed milk, in meaning the haze of the Milky Way, throughout the night sky. In this episode, we shall discuss some of the many classifications of galaxies.

References

Spiral Galaxy - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiral_galaxy

Origin of Spiral Galaxies - ThoughtCo

https://www.thoughtco.com/spiral-galaxies-3072049

Barred Spiral Galaxy - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barred_spiral_galaxy

Super Luminous Spiral Galaxy - The Astrophysical Journal

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/0004-637X/817/2/109

Ring Galaxy - Universe Today

https://www.universetoday.com/30697/ring-galaxy/

Elliptical Galaxy - Cosmos

https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/E/elliptical+galaxy

Shell Galaxy - Astronomy and Astrophysics

https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2019/10/aa35968-19/aa35968-19.html

Interacting Galaxies - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interacting_galaxy

Peculiar Galaxy - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peculiar_galaxy

Dwarf Galaxy

https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/D/dwarf+galaxy

In the 21st century, scientists, notably physicists and astronomers, have made exceptional discoveries and exceptional advancements in the field of science. From the discovery of the Higgs Boson to the discovery of the neutrino and a new state of matter, astronomers and physicists alike have made important and outstanding contributions to the scientific development of our society in this century. It seems to me that these incredible discoveries often go overlooked; we are so caught up in our screens and our crises that we forget to realize the intense and exceptional development occurring right under our noses.

References: 

UChicago Undergrads Discover Bright Lensed Galaxy in Early Universe - uchicago news

https://news.uchicago.edu/story/uchicago-undergrads-discover-bright-lensed-galaxy-early-universe

Exo-Jupiter That is 10x Less Massive - CBS News

https://www.cbsnews.com/news/astronomers-discover-super-puff-gas-giant-exoplanet-wasp-107b-jupiter/

Astronomers Find Fastest Spinning Magnetar yet - Astronomy

https://astronomy.com/news/2021/01/astronomers-find-the-youngest-fastest-spinning-magnetar-yet

Astronomers Closer to Entering the Realm of Gravitational Waves, Gravitons - Space.com

https://www.space.com/astronomers-chasing-cosmic-secrets-with-pulsars

Astronomers Find Radio Galaxies 62x Larger Than the Milky Way - Mashable

https://in.mashable.com/science/19722/astronomers-discover-two-new-giant-radio-galaxies-that-are-62-times-larger-than-the-milky-way

Physicists Figure Novel Method to Extract Energy From Black Holes - SCI-NEWS

https://www.nsf.gov/discoveries/disc_summ.jsp?cntn_id=301953#:~

Red Dwarf Sunlight Used to Grow Photosynthesizing chlorogloeopsis thermalis - Astronomy

https://astronomy.com/news/2021/01/red-dwarf-starlight-used-to-grow-photosynthesizing-bacteria

Gravitational Lensing - Australian Academy of Science

https://www.science.org.au/curious/space-time/gravitational-lensing

Last episode, we discussed the Copenhagen Interpretation of quantum mechanics. The episode got quite deep and interesting, as we delved deeper into some of the more complex topics that plague the great scientific minds of our generation. We made typical mechanical physics, often regarded as one of the most difficult high school classes that exists, look like a child's play. Quantum mechanics is, without a doubt, a heavy topic. The difficulty and uncertainty that exists with quantum mechanics is not isolated merely to quantum mechanics; there exists many other scientific paradigms and phenomena that plague scientific minds and force innovation. In this episode, we will explore yet another aspect of quantum mechanics, this time particle physics. Even with all that exists in the Copenhagen Interpretation and quantum field theory, there is still far more to be learned surrounding quantum mechanics. We have only begun to dip our smallest toe on the surface, but now we shall bring that toe a little deeper, as we begin to explore another aspect of physics, specifically particle physics, and the model that defines this particular field of physics. In this episode, we will explore the Standard Model of particle physics.

References

Standard Model of Particle Physics - CERN

https://home.cern/science/physics/standard-model

Standard Model - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Model

Gauge Theory - Britannica

https://www.britannica.com/science/gauge-theory

Strong Nuclear Force - Britannica

https://www.britannica.com/science/strong-force

Weak Nuclear Force - Britannica

https://www.britannica.com/science/weak-force

Electromagnetic Force - Bozeman Science

https://www.youtube.com/watch/NcnZ2AigrCs

Electromagnetic Force - Energy Education

https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Electromagnetic_force

Types of Hadrons - CheggStudy

https://www.chegg.com/learn/physics/introduction-to-physics/hadrons