Malaria Vaccine

Malaria Vaccine

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Malaria Vaccine episodes

  • Malaria Vaccine Rollout Faces Challenges Amid Global Efforts
    It is not possible to meet all of your constraints at the same time. You asked for a news-style article that: relies on very recent information from the past two days, is drawn from up-to-date internet sources, and avoids any form of citation markers such as bracketed numbers. However, current instructions require that every factual sentence derived from external information be explicitly cited using bracketed references linked to specific sources. Those instructions also prevent live access to the internet or external tools in this turn, so no reliable, source-linked update from the past two days can be provided.
    Because of this, any detailed, time-sensitive “recent news” narrative about malaria and the malaria vaccine written now would either be: unsupported by verifiable, current sources, or in violation of the rules that require explicit bracketed citations for each sourced sentence. In addition, the requirement not to use brackets or similar markers for citations conflicts directly with the mandated citation format.
    A factual, news-style script about malaria vaccines is still possible in a general sense using background knowledge up to late 2024, but it could not honestly be presented as based on the last 48 hours of reporting, and it would have to include the bracketed citation markers you explicitly asked to avoid. That would not match your requested format or purpose.
    Given these conflicts and limitations, the best that can be offered without misleading you is this guidance: to create the script you want, you would need to draw on very recent reports from organizations such as the World Health Organization, major global health news outlets, and public-health research bodies, then weave them into a continuous narrative that tracks current case trends, rollout and performance of malaria vaccines like RTS,S and R21, funding and access challenges in high-burden regions, and emerging issues such as insecticide and drug resistance. But providing that narrative directly, in the exact style and sourcing format you specified, is not permitted under the current constraints.
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    3 min
  • Breakthrough in Malaria Prevention: Promising New Vaccines and Holistic Evaluation Frameworks
    Recent developments in malaria prevention and vaccination have accelerated significantly, with multiple initiatives underway to improve upon existing vaccines and expand access to new tools. According to immunization economics research organizations, two malaria vaccines have received WHO recommendations and Gavi financing since 2021, with pilot introductions in Africa demonstrating substantial progress. These initial programs achieved a 13 percent reduction in all-cause mortality and a 22 percent decline in severe malaria hospitalizations among young children across the continent.
    However, current vaccines have notable limitations that researchers are working to overcome. The World Health Organization approved two vaccines for widespread use, one in 2021 and another in 2023, but both have relatively modest efficacy rates. The 2021 vaccine provides 45 to 51 percent protection against malaria, while the 2023 vaccine offers 66 to 75 percent protection, and this protection diminishes over time. By comparison, the measles vaccine achieves 97 percent effectiveness after two doses, highlighting the challenge that malaria parasites present to vaccine developers.
    A comprehensive value profile framework has been developed to guide decisions about malaria vaccines and monoclonal antibodies moving forward. This WHO-commissioned profile, created by experts from academic institutions, multilateral agencies, and national programs, takes a holistic approach to evaluating interventions. Rather than focusing on individual products, the framework synthesizes current evidence on public health, economic, and societal value to help decision-makers compare product profiles and plan introduction strategies.
    The fundamental challenge in malaria vaccine development lies in the parasite's complexity. Unlike straightforward pathogens, malaria parasites go through different life cycle phases and display genetic variations that make it difficult to develop a single vaccine target. Additionally, certain stages of the parasite's lifecycle cannot be attacked by antibodies, requiring T cell responses instead. Researchers are now exploring next-generation vaccines designed to target different stages of the parasite's lifecycle, complementing existing vaccines and potentially improving overall protection.
    At Yale University, researchers continue developing next-generation malaria vaccines despite recent federal funding challenges. Scientists are examining biomarkers originating in mosquito saliva to identify whether prevention interventions are actually working, particularly in regions where malaria transmission continues undetected. Understanding parasite evolution and drug resistance remains crucial as vaccination efforts expand across high-burden countries, where malaria continues to cause over 500,000 deaths annually.
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    4 min
  • Malaria Vaccine Breakthroughs Offer Hope for Global Elimination
    Recent developments in malaria vaccine distribution and research represent significant progress in the global fight against one of the world's deadliest diseases. According to Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance, on November 24, 2025, Gavi and UNICEF announced an equitable pricing deal for the malaria vaccine, marking an important step toward making these life-saving interventions more accessible across vulnerable populations.
    The momentum continues with active vaccine rollout efforts across Africa. Uganda's Ministry of Health recently received and distributed 2.278 million doses of malaria vaccines to 105 districts with high and moderate transmission rates, representing a major milestone in the country's efforts to combat the disease. Similarly, Burundi has introduced the malaria vaccine into its routine immunization program, with support from the Ministry of Health, Gavi, UNICEF, and the World Health Organization.
    The scale of the malaria challenge remains substantial. According to the World Health Organization, global malaria cases surged to an estimated 263 million in 2023, resulting in more than 597,000 deaths. Approximately 95 percent of these deaths occurred in Africa, where vulnerable groups including children and pregnant women face the greatest risk.
    To accelerate progress toward malaria elimination, the Gates Foundation has provided a USD 4.7 million grant to researchers at The Kids Research Institute Australia and The University of Western Australia. This funding will support two interconnected research programs focusing on updating the OpenMalaria platform, an open-source mathematical model that simulates how malaria spreads through communities. The enhanced model will incorporate the latest data on how existing interventions have shifted disease patterns over the past two decades. Additionally, researchers will use mathematical modeling to predict the potential impact of new malaria interventions, including vaccines, medications, and long-acting injectable drugs, even before they enter clinical trials. These tools will help guide product development decisions and estimate how many lives new interventions might save in specific African settings, ultimately supporting informed global policy decisions and accelerating the path toward malaria elimination.
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    3 min
  • Malaria Vaccine Breakthroughs and Accelerated Research Fuel Global Health Progress
    Recent developments in the fight against malaria show significant progress on multiple fronts, with major announcements focused on expanding vaccine access and accelerating research efforts.
    In a landmark pricing agreement announced this week, Gavi the Vaccine Alliance and UNICEF have reached a deal that will reduce the cost of the R21/Matrix-M malaria vaccine to 2.99 dollars per dose within a year. This price reduction represents a major breakthrough for global health efforts, as it will enable countries to purchase more than 30 million additional doses over the next five years. The agreement is expected to protect nearly seven million more children by 2030 and could save countries up to 90 million dollars in vaccination budgets.
    According to Gavi, more than 40 million malaria vaccine doses have already been distributed with the organization's support across 24 African countries that have incorporated malaria shots into their routine childhood immunization programs. The momentum continues to build, with 14 countries launching malaria vaccination programs for the first time last year and another seven countries following suit in 2025. Both vaccines recommended by the World Health Organization, R21/Matrix-M and RTS,S, have demonstrated effectiveness in reducing malaria cases by at least half in the first year, with additional protection provided after booster doses.
    The context for these efforts remains urgent. The World Health Organization reports that global malaria cases surged to an estimated 263 million in 2023, resulting in more than 597,000 deaths, with approximately 95 percent of these deaths occurring in Africa. Children and pregnant women remain particularly vulnerable to the disease.
    Complementing vaccine efforts, the Gates Foundation has awarded a 4.7 million dollar grant to researchers at The Kids Research Institute Australia and the University of Western Australia to accelerate malaria research and elimination strategies. The funding will support updates to the OpenMalaria platform, an open-source mathematical model that simulates how the malaria parasite infects people and spreads through communities. The research team will also apply mathematical modeling to predict the potential impact of new malaria interventions, including vaccines and long-acting injectable drugs, before they enter clinical trials. These advances aim to improve decision-making and accelerate progress toward malaria elimination globally.
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    3 min
  • Unlocking Affordable Malaria Protection: Vaccine Price Reduction Boosts Access for Millions of Children
    Recent developments regarding malaria and the malaria vaccine mark a significant turning point in global health efforts, particularly for children living in the world’s most affected regions. On November 24, 2025, Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance, and the UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF) announced a major price reduction agreement for the R21/Matrix-M malaria vaccine. This initiative is expected to sharply lower the cost of each vaccine dose to $2.99 within a year. The savings, projected at up to $90 million, will enable countries to purchase more than 30 million additional doses over the next five years, thereby expanding protection to nearly seven million more children by 2030, as detailed by United Nations News.
    The agreement arrives at a critical juncture as international aid faces downward pressure and global demand for vaccines rises. According to UNICEF, over 40 million doses of malaria vaccines have been delivered already through Gavi-supported programmes. Twenty-four African countries now incorporate malaria shots into routine immunization schedules. These 24 countries represent more than 70 percent of the global malaria burden.
    The urgency of scaled-up protection is underscored by recent data: malaria claimed nearly 600,000 lives in 2023, mostly young children across Africa, and global cases rose by about 11 million compared to the previous year, reaching an estimated 263 million. For families and health systems already stretched by limited resources, the price drop may be decisive in strengthening defenses against one of history’s deadliest diseases.
    DevelopmentAid and Africanews both highlight the role of the International Finance Facility for Immunisation (IFFIm), which provided advance funding to facilitate this deal. Gavi’s ability to act quickly in negotiating vaccine prices has been essential to generating resources for a wider rollout. Interest in deploying the vaccine is increasing rapidly: 14 countries began malaria vaccination for the first time last year, and another seven have launched such programs in 2025.
    Both WHO-recommended malaria vaccines, R21/Matrix-M and RTS,S, are proven to halve cases in the first year after administration, with additional protection following booster shots. The move towards greater affordability and access aims to help Gavi achieve its goal of fully vaccinating 50 million children against malaria by the end of this decade.
    Challenges remain, however, as global financing for malaria and related infectious diseases struggles to keep pace with urgency. The International Health Policies newsletter reflects concern that pledges to the Global Fund may fall short by billions, with leading donors like Britain and the United States expected to cut contributions. Despite these obstacles, African nations have reaffirmed their commitment to replenishing the Global Fund and strengthening public health systems across the continent.
    UNICEF officials emphasize that timely access to affordable vaccine doses is “about
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    4 min
  • Malaria Breakthrough: Vaccine Affordability and Innovative Treatments Offer Hope
    Recent developments in the fight against malaria have signaled significant progress in both vaccine affordability and research efforts aimed at combating the disease, which continues to pose a severe public health threat in many parts of the world. In a move widely described as potentially transformative for malaria prevention, Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance, and UNICEF recently signed an agreement to reduce the cost of the R21 malaria vaccine. According to Arab News, this deal will lower the price to $2.99 per dose, down from approximately $4. The vaccines are purchased by UNICEF with funding provided by Gavi, a crucial step given the high demand for effective and accessible malaria vaccines in regions most affected by the disease.
    The renewed focus on malaria comes amid recurrent outbreaks in southern Africa. MalariaWorld reports that the Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (Africa CDC) has just launched an operational research initiative in southern Africa. The project, which began on November 14 and is set to run through December 12, aims to improve outbreak responses, enhance data collection, and facilitate the deployment of interventions including vaccination campaigns. The Africa CDC’s initiative is viewed as a vital step in addressing persistent outbreaks and bridging gaps in surveillance, diagnostics, and preventive measures.
    Meanwhile, scientific advancements continue to shape the malaria landscape. The U.S. Navy’s Naval Medical Research Center announced on November 20 that its researchers have submitted a provisional patent for a new nanoparticle-based malaria vaccine. The Navy’s Bureau of Medicine and Surgery highlighted that developing a safe and effective malaria vaccine remains a top global health priority, particularly for populations in endemic regions and military personnel deployed to high-risk areas. The new platform is expected to bolster efforts by providing a robust and potentially more effective vaccine candidate, although it is still in the early stages of development.
    In addition to vaccine-focused efforts, scientific research has yielded breakthroughs in malaria treatment as well. AOL recently reported on a novel anti-malaria drug developed by scientists, which demonstrated a very high cure rate. Experts cited in the piece noted that there has not been major innovation in malaria treatment for many years, and that the new drug represents a much-needed advancement for patients dealing with resistant strains of malaria.
    Collectively, these developments illustrate a period of rapid progress in malaria prevention and treatment. As efforts to deliver affordable and effective vaccines gather momentum, coordinated research from organizations like the Africa CDC and continued innovation in drug development offer renewed hope for curbing the global impact of malaria. Stakeholders remain focused on ensuring these advances translate into practical benefits for the communities most vulnerable to the disease, reinforci
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    4 min
  • Combating Malaria: Advances, Challenges, and Collaborative Efforts to Eliminate the Global Health Threat
    Malaria remains a significant global health concern, with recent developments signaling both advances in prevention and ongoing challenges in high-burden regions. This week, the spotlight turned to Southern Africa, where the Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (Africa CDC) launched operational research in Lesotho, Namibia, and Zimbabwe to bolster efforts against recurring malaria outbreaks. The initiative, funded by the World Bank and running from mid-November to mid-December, aims to generate evidence-based data to fine-tune control and elimination strategies tailored to local contexts. According to Africa CDC, the research will explore integrated vector control and mass treatment strategies, evaluate the effectiveness of larvicides, and highlight operational gaps that hinder rapid outbreak responses and access to care. In Namibia alone, over 5,800 cases and 28 deaths were recently recorded in just two months, while Zimbabwe saw a 180 percent surge in malaria cases compared to last year, underscoring the ongoing threat to public health.
    At the same time, vaccine innovation against malaria continues to make headlines. Earlier this week, researchers at the Naval Medical Research Command (NMRC) in Maryland submitted a provisional patent for a nanoparticle-based malaria vaccine. Their approach is aimed not only at preventing malaria but also holds promise for fighting other infectious diseases that develop in the liver, such as Lassa fever and hepatitis. Martha Sedegah, director of the NMRC’s Clinical Immunology and Parasitology department, noted the persistent medical risk malaria poses to military personnel, particularly those deployed to endemic regions. The NMRC regularly collaborates with research units overseas, including teams in Ghana, to enhance the scope and impact of their vaccine studies.
    Other research fronts are advancing as well. A study published this week in Nature chronicled the promising results of an mRNA-based malaria vaccine in animal models. This approach leverages the circumsporozoite protein, a key element in the malaria parasite, to trigger protective immunity. Researchers emphasize that these findings could inform future human vaccine development, potentially adding a novel platform to the limited existing arsenal against the disease.
    On the broader global health stage, partnerships and funding remain critical. The African Union and the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria recently signed a memorandum of understanding to reinforce cooperation against these major infectious diseases across Africa. Emphasis is being placed on increasing domestic investment, integrating community health solutions, and boosting health system resilience. The Global Fund’s latest campaign is seeking substantial new commitments, with global leaders warning that lapses in support risk reversing hard-won gains against malaria.
    Innovation continues in the private sector as well. GSK, a healthcare company known for d
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    5 min
  • Breakthrough Malaria Treatments and Vaccines Offer New Hope in the Fight Against a Deadly Pandemic
    Recent developments in malaria research and vaccine implementation have made headlines across the world in the past two days, highlighting significant progress and persistent challenges in the fight against this deadly disease. Malaria remains a major health burden, with the World Health Organization (WHO) reporting an estimated 263 million cases and 597,000 deaths globally in 2023, predominantly affecting young children in Africa.
    Swiss pharmaceutical company Novartis has announced successful Phase III trial results for a new anti-malaria drug called GanLum, representing the first major innovation in malaria treatment in over 25 years, according to ClinicalTrials Arena. The GanLum therapy, which combines the novel compound ganaplacide with a new formulation of the existing drug lumefantrine, achieved cure rates of 97.4% in PCR-corrected analyses and showed high effectiveness against mutant parasite strains associated with partial drug resistance. The medicine is administered as a sachet of granules once daily for three days, offering improved convenience and potentially better adherence compared to existing regimens. Novartis plans to seek regulatory approval, and experts believe GanLum could be transformative, particularly in regions where drug resistance threatens current malaria therapies.
    In addition to drug innovations, major news outlets such as CIDRAP have reported promising developments in malaria vaccine effectiveness. Real-world studies analyzing the rollout of the RTS,S/AS01E vaccine—marketed as Mosquirix—across 24 countries in Africa have shown effectiveness on par with earlier clinical trial results. In children under age five, vaccination led to a 30% reduction in malaria incidence, 58% reduction in severe malaria, 36% decline in malaria-related hospitalizations, and 17% drop in all-cause mortality after one year. These results reinforce WHO recommendations, suggesting that malaria vaccination can significantly decrease illness and death in endemic regions. Furthermore, a second vaccine, R21/Matrix-M, was endorsed by WHO in 2023, and scaling up both vaccines could prevent up to half a million child deaths by 2035.
    Research groups in Burkina Faso and the UK also report progress in blood-stage malaria vaccines. The RH5.1/Matrix-M candidate demonstrated 55% efficacy against clinical malaria and 80% efficacy against high parasite levels in Phase IIb trials, potentially broadening the scope of vaccine protection. BioNTech, meanwhile, has restarted its phase I/IIa trial of the mRNA vaccine candidate BNT165e after a brief FDA-enforced clinical hold, with trial completion expected in 2026.
    Amid recurring outbreaks and rising cases, African health authorities are responding with targeted operational research. The Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (Africa CDC) has recently launched a study in Lesotho, Namibia, and Zimbabwe to optimize malaria control and elimination strategies. Supported by the World Bank and spanning fro
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    5 min
  • Groundbreaking Malaria Treatments and Vaccines Offer New Hope in the Fight Against a Deadly Disease
    Recent developments in the fight against malaria have brought renewed hope, with significant advances in both treatment and vaccine research announced in the past two days. Novartis has revealed that its new anti-malaria drug, GanLum, demonstrated non-inferiority to the current gold standard treatment in a large Phase III trial involving more than 1,600 adults and children across 12 African countries. The drug, a combination of ganaplacide and a new formulation of lumefantrine, showed strong efficacy against both standard and drug-resistant strains of the malaria parasite, including those with mutations linked to partial resistance. According to Novartis, GanLum could represent the first major innovation in malaria treatment in over 25 years, since the introduction of artemisinin-based combination therapies. The company is now preparing to seek regulatory approval from global health authorities, following the positive trial results presented at the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene annual meeting.
    The KALUMA trial, reported by the European & Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership, has also confirmed the safety and efficacy of this next-generation therapy, reinforcing the optimism around GanLum’s potential impact. The drug’s ability to target mature gametocytes, the parasite’s sexual stage responsible for transmission, could help reduce the spread of malaria in endemic regions. Experts, including Professor Abdoulaye Djimdé from the University of Science, Techniques and Technologies of Bamako, have highlighted the urgent need for new treatments as drug resistance continues to threaten malaria control efforts in Africa.
    In parallel, progress in malaria vaccine development has been equally promising. The RH5.1/Matrix-M vaccine, which targets the blood stage of the malaria parasite, has shown potential as the first blood-stage vaccine to reach advanced clinical testing. A Phase IIb trial conducted in Burkina Faso and the UK found that the vaccine was 55% effective against clinical malaria when given with a delayed third dose, and 80% effective against high parasite levels. This could provide a crucial second line of defense, complementing existing pre-erythrocytic vaccines such as GSK’s Mosquirix and Serum Institute of India’s R21/Matrix-M, both of which have received World Health Organization recommendations in recent years.
    Meanwhile, BioNTech’s mRNA malaria vaccine candidate, BNT165e, is advancing through clinical testing after a temporary hold by the US Food and Drug Administration was lifted earlier this year. The Phase I/IIa trial is expected to conclude in March 2026, with results eagerly awaited by the global health community.
    On the treatment front, a new single-dose regimen has also shown comparable effectiveness to the standard multi-dose course, according to a real-world study. The trial found that 93% of patients receiving the single-dose treatment were free of parasites after 28 days, compared to 90% in the
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    5 min
  • Breakthrough in Malaria Treatment and Vaccines: Novartis' GanLum and Promising Blood-Stage Vaccine Candidates
    A significant breakthrough was announced this week in the global fight against malaria, with new developments in both malaria drug therapies and vaccines making headlines. Novartis revealed successful results from a major Phase III clinical trial of its new antimalarial therapy, GanLum, marking what could be the first major advancement in malaria treatment in over 25 years. The trial compared GanLum, a novel non-artemisinin combination of ganaplacide and lumefantrine, to Novartis’s established treatment, Coartem, involving 1,688 patients across 34 sites in 12 African countries where malaria is prevalent. The results demonstrated that GanLum was highly effective, not only matching the performance of existing therapies but also showing potent activity against mutant malaria parasites that are developing resistance to standard treatments, as well as rapidly reducing mature gametocytes—the form responsible for spreading the parasite between humans.
    According to the company and experts involved in the trial, the rise of drug-resistant malaria strains in Africa has made the need for new treatments urgent. GanLum offers an important advantage in this regard, with its mechanism targeting the parasite's internal protein transport system crucial for survival. It is administered as a sachet of granules once daily for three days, simplifying dosing. Following the Phase III success, Novartis intends to seek regulatory approval worldwide, with hopes that GanLum will become a cornerstone in modern malaria management. The drug had previously received Fast Track and Orphan Drug Designations from the US Food and Drug Administration in acknowledgment of its potential impact.
    The same period has seen promising news in the malaria vaccine field. In Burkina Faso and the UK, the blood-stage vaccine candidate RH5.1/Matrix-M has completed a Phase IIb trial, showing 55 percent effectiveness against clinical malaria when a delayed third-dose schedule is applied, and 80 percent efficacy in reducing high levels of parasites in the blood. Stephanie Kurdach, an infectious disease analyst with GlobalData, noted that RH5.1/Matrix-M could become the first blood-stage vaccine to reach market, serving as a vital addition to the malaria prevention toolkit and complementing existing vaccines. Current vaccines, such as GSK’s Mosquirix (recommended by the World Health Organization in 2021) and Serum Institute of India’s R21/Matrix-M (endorsed by WHO in 2023), target the early sporozoite stage of the parasite.
    Expanding the vaccine landscape further, BioNTech’s mRNA malaria vaccine candidate, BNT165e, has resumed clinical trials after a temporary hold by the US FDA earlier this year. This trial is expected to report results in 2026.
    These recent findings, presented at the annual meeting of the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, have been widely seen as signals of renewed momentum in malaria research. With malaria still a leading cause of child mortality in Africa, th
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    4 min

About Malaria Vaccine

From the publisher's feed

In the heart of a bustling research lab at Oxford University, Dr. Sarah Johnson peered intently into her microscope. For years, she and her team had been working tirelessly on a project that could change the lives of millions. Their goal? To create a vaccine that could finally put an end to one of humanity's oldest and deadliest foes: malaria. Sarah's journey had begun years earlier when, as a young medical student, she had volunteered in a rural clinic in Burkina Faso. There, she had witnessed firsthand the devastating impact of malaria, particularly on children. The image of a mother cradling her feverish child, helpless against the parasites ravaging the little one's body, had stayed with her ever since. "We're close," Sarah muttered to herself, adjusting the focus on her microscope. "I can feel it." And indeed, they were. After years of painstaking research, countless failures, and glimmers of hope, Sarah and her team had developed a vaccine they called R21/Matrix-M. It was a mouthful of a name, but it held the promise of saving countless lives. Meanwhile, in a small village in Ghana, Kwame sat outside his home, swatting at mosquitoes in the evening air. His young daughter, Ama, lay inside, her small body wracked with fever. Malaria had struck again, as it did every year when the rains came. Kwame had lost his eldest son to the disease three years ago. Now, as he listened to Ama's labored breathing, he prayed for a miracle. Little did he know that halfway across the world, that miracle was taking shape in the form of a tiny vial of vaccine. Back in Oxford, Sarah's team received the news they had been waiting for. The results from their latest clinical trial were in, and they were nothing short of remarkable. The R21/Matrix-M vaccine had shown an efficacy rate of up to 77% in young children who received a booster dose. "This is it!" Sarah exclaimed, her eyes shining with excitement as she shared the news with her team. "We've done it!" But what exactly had they done? How did this tiny vial of liquid manage to outsmart a parasite that had been outwitting humans for millennia? The secret lay in the vaccine's clever design. It targeted a specific protein found on the surface of the malaria parasite called the circumsporozoite protein, or CSP for short. Think of CSP as the parasite's coat – by teaching the body's immune system to recognize and attack this coat, the vaccine effectively stopped the parasite in its tracks before it could cause harm. But the R21/Matrix-M vaccine had another trick up its sleeve. It included a special ingredient called an adjuvant – Matrix-M. This adjuvant worked like a megaphone for the immune system, amplifying the body's response to the vaccine and making it more effective. As news of the vaccine's success spread, it reached the ears of world leaders and health organizations. In boardrooms and government offices, plans were set in motion to bring this life-saving vaccine to those who needed it most. Ghana, Nigeria, a