MedEvidence Articles

On this week's episode, we explore the history of one of the most ubiquitous manufacturing tools for producing medicine in living cells: Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells. We look at the history, progress, and technical benefits of using CHO cells compared with other cells like bacteria or yeast.

References:

Life Sciences Foundation. Vital tools A brief history of CHO cells. LSF Magazine. 2015 Winter.

Wechsler, A. Brant Lake’s gerbil whisperer. Adirondack Life. 2023, Jun. https://www.adirondacklife.com/2013/08/12/from-the-archives-the-gerbil-genius-of-brant-lake/

Berg JM, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L. Biochemistry [7th Edition]. [New York, New York]: W.H. Freeman and Company [2012]. p. 25-65

Jayapal KP, Wlaschin KF, Hu W, Yap MG. Recombinant protein therapeutics from CHO cells-20 years and counting. Chemical engineering progress. 2007 Oct 1;103(10):40.

Cell line development market to grow at 10.1% CAGR during 2025–2034. Market.us. [Website accessed 2026, September 09]. https://market.us/press-release/cell-line-development-market/

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In this week's episode we explore the links between anxiety, Alzheimer's, and agitation. We look at how anxiety works, how agitation works, and how Alzheimer's may increase these two. We also jump into some of the treatment options available to lower agitation for those with Alzheimer's disease.

References:

• Ostergaard JR. A new perspective on agitation in Alzheimer’s disease: a potential paradigm shift. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2025 Apr 4;26(7):3370. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26073370
• Carrarini C, Russo M, Dono F, Barbone F, Rispoli MG, Ferri L, Di Pietro M, Digiovanni A, Ajdinaj P, Speranza R, Granzotto A. Agitation and dementia: prevention and treatment strategies in acute and chronic conditions. Frontiers in neurology. 2021 Apr 16;12:644317.
• Liu KY, Stringer AE, Reeves SJ, Howard RJ. The neurochemistry of agitation in Alzheimer’s disease: a systematic review. Ageing research reviews. 2018 May 1;43:99-107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2018.03.003
• Sadowska K, Turnwald M, O'Neil T, Maust DT, Gerlach LB. Behavioral symptoms and treatment challenges for patients living with dementia: Hospice clinician and caregiver perspectives. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 2025 Apr;73(4):1094-104. https://doi.org/10.1111/jgs.19320

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In this week's episode, we look into the world of "grey market" peptides. We explore what peptides are, what the grey market is, and if these unsanctioned "medications" are safe for human use.

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In this week's episode, we review a recently released, randomized research paper that compared three different diets. The study looked at the Mediterranean diet, a low-fat plant-forward diet, and very-low-carb ketogenic diet to discover the effects of these diets on heart health after participants lost 10% of their body weight. We look at the study, the diets, and why participants on the ketogenic diet had better indicators of heart health after weight loss.

References:

Petersen MC, Smith GI, Farabi SS, Palacios HH, Shankaran M, Hellerstein MK, Patterson BW, Klein S. Effect of diet macronutrient content on the cardiometabolic response to weight loss: A randomized clinical trial. Cell Metabolism. 2026 Aug 27; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2026.07.020  

Kirkpatrick CF, Bolick JP, Kris-Etherton PM, Sikand G, Aspry KE, Soffer DE, Willard KE, Maki KC. Review of current evidence and clinical recommendations on the effects of low-carbohydrate and very-low-carbohydrate (including ketogenic) diets for the management of body weight and other cardiometabolic risk factors: a scientific statement from the National Lipid Association Nutrition and Lifestyle Task Force. Journal of clinical lipidology. 2019 Sep 1;13(5):689-711. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacl.2019.08.003

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In this week's episode, we take a peek into the murky, hazy world of brain fog. This condition/syndrome/symptom is vague and nonspecific, and occurs alongside a wide variety of otherwise unrelated medical problems, which makes it hard to categorize. We look at what brain fog is, what might be going on inside the skull, and possible treatments.

References:

Denno P, Hampshire A. Defining Brain Fog-A Transdiagnostic Narrative Review. European Psychiatry. 2025 Apr;68(S1):S602-3. https://doi.org/10.1192/j.eurpsy.2025.1226

Denno P, Zhao S, Husain M, Hampshire A. Defining brain fog across medical conditions. Trends in Neurosciences. 2025 May 1;48(5):330-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2025.01.003

Theoharides TC, Stewart JM, Hatziagelaki E, Kolaitis G. Brain “fog,” inflammation and obesity: key aspects of neuropsychiatric disorders improved by luteolin. Frontiers in neuroscience. 2015 Jul 3;9:225. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2015.00225

Theoharides TC, Cholevas C, Polyzoidis K, Politis A. Long‐COVID syndrome‐associated brain fog and chemofog: Luteolin to the rescue. Biofactors. 2021 Mar;47(2):232-41. https://doi.org/10.1002/biof.1726

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In this week's episode, written by guest writer Daniel Benton, we explore the Hawthorne Effect. This the phenomenon that people tend to do better in research studies just by being observed. We look into what this effect is, how it works, and how it makes clinical research trials beneficial to every participants simply by being observed.

References:

Sommer R. The Hawthorne dogma. Psychological Bulletin [Internet]. 1968 Dec 1 [cited 2026 July 21];70(6, Pt.1):592–5. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232457651_the_hawthorne_dogma

Mayo E. The Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization. Nature. 1933 Aug;134(3380):201–1. 

Menezes P. Trial effect: the road from efficacy to effectiveness. Clinical Investigation [Internet]. 2012 May [cited 2026 July 21];2(5):443–5. Available from: https://www.ovid.com/journals/clni/abstract/10.4155/cli.12.34~trial-effect-the-road-from-efficacy-to-effectiveness

Brody T. Chapter 7 - Placebo Arm as Part of Clinical Trial Design. In: Clinical Trials (Second Edition) [Internet]. Second Edition. Boston: Academic Press; 2016. p. 155–72. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128042175000072

Hróbjartsson A, Gøtzsche PC. Is the Placebo Powerless? New England Journal of Medicine [Internet]. 2001 May 24 [cited 2026 July 21];344(21):1594–602. Available from: https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM200105243442106

Braunholtz DA, Edwards SJL, Lilford RJ. Are randomized clinical trials good for us (in the short term)? Evidence for a “trial effect.” Journal of Clinical Epidemiology [Internet]. 2001 Feb 19 [cited 2026 July 21];54(3):217–24. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s089543560000305x

 Guo Y, Yang W, Lin C, Wu H, Li Z, Jiao R, et al. Placebo response on the weight change and its influencing factors in overweight or obesity with or without diabetes: a meta-analysis of 182 anti-obesity medications trials. Communications Medicine [Internet]. 2026 June 5 [cited 2026 July 21];. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s43856-026-01659-7

Cizza G, Piaggi P, Rother KI, Csako G. Hawthorne Effect with Transient Behavioral and Biochemical Changes in a Randomized Controlled Sleep Extension Trial of Chronically Short-Sleeping Obese Adults: Implications for the Design and Interpretation of Clinical Studies. Penzel T, editor. PLoS ONE. 2014 Aug 20;9(8):e104176. 

Li Y, Liu W, Yu G. Dancing in Shackles: The Double-Edged Sword Effect of Felt Accountability on Work Outcomes and Individual Wellbeing. Frontiers in Psychology. 2022 June 10;13.

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In this week's episode, we look at the prevalence, pathophysiology, and progress towards a solution to urinary incontinence. We review what urinary incontinence is, look at the different types of incontinence, and explore what happens in the body that makes it tough to prevent leakage. Then we finish by looking at treatment options for those who suffer with the condition.

References:

Aoki Y, Brown HW, Brubaker L, Cornu JN, Daly JO, Cartwright R. Urinary incontinence in women. Nature reviews Disease primers. 2017 Jul 6;3(1):17042. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrdp.2017.42

Marieb EN, Hoehn K. Human anatomy & physiology. [11th Edition]. [Hoboken, New Jersey]: Pearson; [2019]. p. 1003-1007

Pan J, Liang E, Cai Q, Zhang D, Wang J, Feng Y, Yang X, Yang Y, Tian W, Quan C, Han R. Progress in studies on pathological changes and future treatment strategies of obesity-associated female stress urinary incontinence: a narrative review. Translational andrology and urology. 2021 Jan;10(1):494. https://tau.amegroups.org/article/view/60334/html

Long T, Cheng B, Zhang K. Abdominal obesity as assessed by anthropometric measures associates with urinary incontinence in females: findings from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2005–2018. BMC women's health. 2024 Apr 2;24(1):212. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-024-03059-2

Wing RR, Creasman JM, West DS, Richter HE, Myers D, Burgio KL, Franklin F, Gorin AA, Vittinghoff E, Macer J, Kusek JW. Improving urinary incontinence in overweight and obese women through modest weight loss. Obstetrics and gynecology. 2010 Aug;116(2 Pt 1):284. https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0b013e3181e8fb60

Subak LL, Wing R, West DS, Franklin F, Vittinghoff E, Creasman JM, Richter HE, Myers D, Burgio KL, Gorin AA, Macer J. Weight loss to treat urinary incontinence in overweight and obese women. New England Journal of Medicine. 2009 Jan 29;360(5):481-90. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0806375

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In this week's episode, we explore the world of hypogonadism, which typically manifests as low testosterone. We look at what testosterone is, the role it plays in the body, and what happens when testosterone is low. We then explore some common reasons for low testosterone and treatments that are available, as well as what's coming on the horizon.

References:

Anawalt BD, O’Connor KM, Grossmann M. Adult male hypogonadism: a review. JAMA. 2026 Jun 23;335(24):2146-59. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2026.8526

Carman W. The prevalence, incidence, and treatment rates of hypogonadism in men across geographies: a systematic literature review. Value in Health. 2013 Jan 1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jval.2013.03.315

Mulligan T, Frick MF, Zuraw QC, Stemhagen A, McWhirter C. Prevalence of hypogonadism in males aged at least 45 years: the HIM study. International journal of clinical practice. 2006 Jul;60(7):762-9. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1742-1241.2006.00992.x

Davidiuk AJ, Broderick GA. Adult-onset hypogonadism: evaluation and role of testosterone replacement therapy. Translational andrology and urology. 2016 Dec;5(6):824. https://doi.org/10.21037/tau.2016.09.02

Bhasin S, Brito JP, Cunningham GR, Hayes FJ, Hodis HN, Matsumoto AM, Snyder PJ, Swerdloff RS, Wu FC, Yialamas MA. Testosterone therapy in men with hypogonadism: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 2018 May;103(5):1715-44. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2018-00229

Marieb EN, Hoehn K. Human anatomy & physiology. [11th Edition]. [Hoboken, New Jersey]: Pearson; [2019]. p. 601-641, 1060.

Jones TH, Dobs AS, Randeva H, Moore W, Parkin JM. Leflutrozole in male obesity-associated hypogonadotropic hypogonadism: Ph 2b double-blind randomised controlled trial. European journal of endocrinology. 2023 Sep;189(3):297-308. https://doi.org/10.1093/ejendo/lvad099

Wu F, Zitzmann M, Heiselman D, Donatucci C, Knorr J, Patel AB, Kinchen K. Demographic and clinical correlates of patient-reported improvement in sex drive, erectile function, and energy with testosterone solution 2%. The journal of sexual medicine. 2016 Aug;13(8):1212-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2016.05.010

Hussain A, Gilloteaux J. The human testes: estrogen and ageing outlooks. Translational Research in Anatomy. 2020 Sep 1;20:100073. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tria.2020.100073

Gurayah AA, Dullea A, Weber A, Masterson JM, Khodamoradi K, Mohamed AI, Ramasamy R. Long vs short acting testosterone treatments: a look at the risks. Urology. 2023 Feb 1;172:5-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urology.2022.11.016

Jones T, Dobs A, MacKinnon A, Parkin J. OR18-4 Beneficial Effect on Sperm Production of Leflutrozole in Men with Obesity-Associated Secondary Hypogonadotropic Hypogonadism: Results from a Phase II Study. Journal of the Endocrine Society. 2019 Apr;3(Supplement_1):OR18-4. https://doi.org/10.1210/js.2019-OR18-4

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In this week's episode, we explore pancreatic cancer. This dangerous form of cancer has many things working against it: the pancreas is very near vital blood vessels, symptoms are vague, and there is no screening option available. As a result, most tumors aren't detected until surgical removal isn't an option, which leads to a high mortality rate. Listen to learn more about this devastating disease.

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In this week's episode, we explore the difference between vaccines that are effective for live and those that must be renewed yearly. The difference is viruses that mutate frequently, like the flu, and those that don't, like measles. We explore the mechanism that makes some viruses better at evading our immune system and the  tradeoff between high infection rate and high infection efficacy.

References:

• Frank SA, Bush RM. Barriers to antigenic escape by pathogens: trade-off between reproductive rate and antigenic mutability. BMC evolutionary biology. 2007 Nov 15;7(1):229. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-7-229
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. About estimated flu burden. CDC. February 25, 2026. Accessed July 14, 2026. https://www.cdc.gov/flu-burden/php/about/index.html
• Rodpothong P, Auewarakul P. Viral evolution and transmission effectiveness. World journal of virology. 2012 Oct 12;1(5):131.

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