MedEvidence Articles

On this week's episode, we explore habits. We look at what habits are, how they form, the underlying neurobiology, and the importance of good habits on health outcomes. We also review at how to create new, healthy habits and how to break old, unhealthy ones. 

References:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The 2025 EPA automotive trends report. Washington (DC): U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; 2026 Feb. Report No.: EPA-420-R-26-001. [cited 2026 Oct 28]. Available from: https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2026-02/420r26001.pdf

Moore S, Wang Z, Zhu Z, Wang J, Sun R, Lee YA, Charles A, Kuchibhotla KV. Revealing abrupt transitions from goal-directed to habitual behavior. Nature Communications. 2026 Mar 31.https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-026-71048-0

Cleo G, Beller E, Glasziou P, Isenring E, Thomas R. Efficacy of habit-based weight loss interventions: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of behavioral medicine. 2020 Aug;43(4):519-32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-019-00100-w

Singh B, Murphy A, Maher C, Smith AE. Time to form a habit: a systematic review and meta-analysis of health behaviour habit formation and its determinants. InHealthcare 2024 Dec 9 (Vol. 12, No. 23, p. 2488). MDPI.

Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessell TM, Kupfermann I, Iversen S, editors. Principles of neural science. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2000. p. 34, 998-1012, 1252-1254.

Wood W, Neal DT. Healthy through habit: Interventions for initiating & maintaining health behavior change. Behavioral Science & Policy. 2016 Apr;2(1):71-83.

https://doi.org/10.1177/237946151600200109

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In this week's episode, we look at the evolutionary strategies for dealing with parasitic worms and how they contribute to food allergies. We look at what parasitic worms are, the type 2 immune responses our bodies use to deal with them, how eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is exacerbated by this defense system. We also look at some ways doctors are trying to help people with eosinophilic esophagitis.

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In this week's episode, we review an older article from 2024, which has been updated for 2026. We look at the similarities and differences between the flu, caused by the influenza virus, and respiratory syncytial virus. We discuss symptoms, treatments, vaccines, and the importance of ongoing clinical trials for mitigating the danger of these seasonal viruses.

References

National Foundation for Infectious Diseases.(n.d.). How to tell the difference between flu, RSV, COVID-19, and the common cold. [Website]. https://www.nfid.org/resource/how-to-tell-the-difference-between-flu-rsv-covid-19-and-the-common-cold/

MercyOne. (n.d.). Is it COVID-19, the flu, or RSV? [Website]. https://www.mercyone.org/health-and-wellness/health-answers/covid-19-what-you-need-to-know/covid-19-blogs/is-it-the-flu-or-a-cold

Dartmouth Health. (2024, February 2). How do you know if you have COVID-19, flu, or RSV? [Website[. https://www.dartmouth-hitchcock.org/stories/article/how-do-you-know-if-you-have-covid-19-flu-or-rsv

U.S. Food & Drug Administration. (2024, August 7). Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). https://www.fda.gov/consumers/covid-19-flu-and-rsv/respiratory-syncytial-virus-rsv

World Health Organization. (2025, February 28). Influenza (seasonal). [Website, accessed 2025, October 24]. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/influenza-(seasonal)

U.S. Food & Drug Administration. (2023, July 17). FDA approves new drug to prevent RSV in babies and toddlers. [Website, accessed 2025, October 24]. https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-new-drug-prevent-rsv-babies-and-toddlers

Merck. (2025, June 9). U.S. FDA approves Merck’s ENFLONSIA™ (clesrovimab-cfor) for prevention of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) lower respiratory tract disease in infants born during or entering their first RSV season. [Website, accessed 2025, October 24]. https://www.merck.com/news/u-s-fda-approves-mercks-enflonsia-clesrovimab-cfor-for-prevention-of-respiratory-syncytial-virus-rsv-lower-respiratory-tract-disease-in-infants-born-during-or-entering-their-fir/

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On this week's episode, we explore the world of natriuretic peptides; special signal molecules that help reduce the effects of heart failure. We look at what these peptides are, how they work, and how they are being used in medicine to help those with chronic heart failure.

Acronyms in this article:

Abbreviation | Meaning | Explanation
NP | Natriuretic peptides | A class of signaling molecules found in the blood
Na | Sodium (from natrium) | An key element; part of dietary salt
ANP | Atrial natriuretic peptide | A natriuretic peptide produced in the atria of the heart
BNP | “Brain” natriuretic peptide | A natriuretic peptide produced in the ventricles of the heart
CNP | C-type natriuretic peptide | A natriuretic peptide produced by cells for local communication
NPR1 | Natriuretic peptide receptor-1 | A cellular receptor that senses natriuretic peptides ANP and BNP
NPR-A | Natriuretic peptide receptor-A | Another name for NPR1 (above)
GC-A | Guanylyl cyclase-A | Another name for NPR1 (above), describes the activity inside the cell instead of what activates it
cGMP | Cyclic guanosine monophosphate | Secondary messenger used for signaling inside of cells, activated by guanylyl cyclases

References

Dunn ME, Kithcart A, Kim JH, Ho AJ, Franklin MC, Romero Hernandez A, de Hoon J, Botermans W, Meyer J, Jin X, Zhang D. Agonist antibody to guanylate cyclase receptor NPR1 regulates vascular tone. Nature. 2024 Sep 19;633(8030):654-61. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07903-1

Rao S, Pena C, Shurmur S, Nugent K. Atrial natriuretic peptide: structure, function, and physiological effects: a narrative review. Current Cardiology Reviews. 2021 Nov 1;17(6):17-27. https://doi.org/10.2174/1573403X17666210202102210

Kuhn M. Structure, regulation, and function of mammalian membrane guanylyl cyclase receptors, with a focus on guanylyl cyclase-A. Circulation research. 2003 Oct 17;93(8):700-9. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.RES.0000094745.28948.4D

Potter LR, Abbey-Hosch S, Dickey DM. Natriuretic peptides, their receptors, and cyclic guanosine monophosphate-dependent signaling functions. Endocrine reviews. 2006 Feb 1;27(1):47-72. https://doi.org/10.1210/er.2005-0014

Nishikimi T, Maeda N, Matsuoka H. The role of natriuretic peptides in cardioprotection. Cardiovascular research. 2006 Feb 1;69(2):318-28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cardiores.2005.10.001

Friebe A, Sandner P, Schmidtko A. cGMP: a unique 2nd messenger molecule–recent developments in cGMP research and development. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's archives of pharmacology. 2020 Feb;393(2):287-302. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00210-019-01779-z

Marieb EN, Hoehn K. Human anatomy & physiology. [11th Edition]. [Hoboken, New Jersey]: Pearson; [2019]. p.402-403

Curry FR. Atrial natriuretic peptide: an essential physiological regulator of transvascular fluid, protein transport, and plasma volume. The Journal of clinical investigation. 2005 Jun 1;115(6):1458-61. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI25417

Ibebuogu UN, Gladysheva IP, Houng AK, Reed GL. Decompensated heart failure is associated with reduced corin levels and decreased cleavage of pro–atrial natriuretic peptide. Circulation: Heart Failure. 2011 Mar;4(2):114-20. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.109.895581

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On this week's episode, we explore the history of one of the most ubiquitous manufacturing tools for producing medicine in living cells: Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells. We look at the history, progress, and technical benefits of using CHO cells compared with other cells like bacteria or yeast.

References:

Life Sciences Foundation. Vital tools A brief history of CHO cells. LSF Magazine. 2015 Winter.

Wechsler, A. Brant Lake’s gerbil whisperer. Adirondack Life. 2023, Jun. https://www.adirondacklife.com/2013/08/12/from-the-archives-the-gerbil-genius-of-brant-lake/

Berg JM, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L. Biochemistry [7th Edition]. [New York, New York]: W.H. Freeman and Company [2012]. p. 25-65

Jayapal KP, Wlaschin KF, Hu W, Yap MG. Recombinant protein therapeutics from CHO cells-20 years and counting. Chemical engineering progress. 2007 Oct 1;103(10):40.

Cell line development market to grow at 10.1% CAGR during 2025–2034. Market.us. [Website accessed 2026, September 09]. https://market.us/press-release/cell-line-development-market/

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In this week's episode we explore the links between anxiety, Alzheimer's, and agitation. We look at how anxiety works, how agitation works, and how Alzheimer's may increase these two. We also jump into some of the treatment options available to lower agitation for those with Alzheimer's disease.

References:

• Ostergaard JR. A new perspective on agitation in Alzheimer’s disease: a potential paradigm shift. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2025 Apr 4;26(7):3370. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26073370
• Carrarini C, Russo M, Dono F, Barbone F, Rispoli MG, Ferri L, Di Pietro M, Digiovanni A, Ajdinaj P, Speranza R, Granzotto A. Agitation and dementia: prevention and treatment strategies in acute and chronic conditions. Frontiers in neurology. 2021 Apr 16;12:644317.
• Liu KY, Stringer AE, Reeves SJ, Howard RJ. The neurochemistry of agitation in Alzheimer’s disease: a systematic review. Ageing research reviews. 2018 May 1;43:99-107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2018.03.003
• Sadowska K, Turnwald M, O'Neil T, Maust DT, Gerlach LB. Behavioral symptoms and treatment challenges for patients living with dementia: Hospice clinician and caregiver perspectives. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 2025 Apr;73(4):1094-104. https://doi.org/10.1111/jgs.19320

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In this week's episode, we look into the world of "grey market" peptides. We explore what peptides are, what the grey market is, and if these unsanctioned "medications" are safe for human use.

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In this week's episode, we review a recently released, randomized research paper that compared three different diets. The study looked at the Mediterranean diet, a low-fat plant-forward diet, and very-low-carb ketogenic diet to discover the effects of these diets on heart health after participants lost 10% of their body weight. We look at the study, the diets, and why participants on the ketogenic diet had better indicators of heart health after weight loss.

References:

Petersen MC, Smith GI, Farabi SS, Palacios HH, Shankaran M, Hellerstein MK, Patterson BW, Klein S. Effect of diet macronutrient content on the cardiometabolic response to weight loss: A randomized clinical trial. Cell Metabolism. 2026 Aug 27; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2026.07.020  

Kirkpatrick CF, Bolick JP, Kris-Etherton PM, Sikand G, Aspry KE, Soffer DE, Willard KE, Maki KC. Review of current evidence and clinical recommendations on the effects of low-carbohydrate and very-low-carbohydrate (including ketogenic) diets for the management of body weight and other cardiometabolic risk factors: a scientific statement from the National Lipid Association Nutrition and Lifestyle Task Force. Journal of clinical lipidology. 2019 Sep 1;13(5):689-711. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacl.2019.08.003

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In this week's episode, we take a peek into the murky, hazy world of brain fog. This condition/syndrome/symptom is vague and nonspecific, and occurs alongside a wide variety of otherwise unrelated medical problems, which makes it hard to categorize. We look at what brain fog is, what might be going on inside the skull, and possible treatments.

References:

Denno P, Hampshire A. Defining Brain Fog-A Transdiagnostic Narrative Review. European Psychiatry. 2025 Apr;68(S1):S602-3. https://doi.org/10.1192/j.eurpsy.2025.1226

Denno P, Zhao S, Husain M, Hampshire A. Defining brain fog across medical conditions. Trends in Neurosciences. 2025 May 1;48(5):330-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2025.01.003

Theoharides TC, Stewart JM, Hatziagelaki E, Kolaitis G. Brain “fog,” inflammation and obesity: key aspects of neuropsychiatric disorders improved by luteolin. Frontiers in neuroscience. 2015 Jul 3;9:225. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2015.00225

Theoharides TC, Cholevas C, Polyzoidis K, Politis A. Long‐COVID syndrome‐associated brain fog and chemofog: Luteolin to the rescue. Biofactors. 2021 Mar;47(2):232-41. https://doi.org/10.1002/biof.1726

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In this week's episode, written by guest writer Daniel Benton, we explore the Hawthorne Effect. This the phenomenon that people tend to do better in research studies just by being observed. We look into what this effect is, how it works, and how it makes clinical research trials beneficial to every participants simply by being observed.

References:

Sommer R. The Hawthorne dogma. Psychological Bulletin [Internet]. 1968 Dec 1 [cited 2026 July 21];70(6, Pt.1):592–5. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232457651_the_hawthorne_dogma

Mayo E. The Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization. Nature. 1933 Aug;134(3380):201–1. 

Menezes P. Trial effect: the road from efficacy to effectiveness. Clinical Investigation [Internet]. 2012 May [cited 2026 July 21];2(5):443–5. Available from: https://www.ovid.com/journals/clni/abstract/10.4155/cli.12.34~trial-effect-the-road-from-efficacy-to-effectiveness

Brody T. Chapter 7 - Placebo Arm as Part of Clinical Trial Design. In: Clinical Trials (Second Edition) [Internet]. Second Edition. Boston: Academic Press; 2016. p. 155–72. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128042175000072

Hróbjartsson A, Gøtzsche PC. Is the Placebo Powerless? New England Journal of Medicine [Internet]. 2001 May 24 [cited 2026 July 21];344(21):1594–602. Available from: https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM200105243442106

Braunholtz DA, Edwards SJL, Lilford RJ. Are randomized clinical trials good for us (in the short term)? Evidence for a “trial effect.” Journal of Clinical Epidemiology [Internet]. 2001 Feb 19 [cited 2026 July 21];54(3):217–24. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s089543560000305x

 Guo Y, Yang W, Lin C, Wu H, Li Z, Jiao R, et al. Placebo response on the weight change and its influencing factors in overweight or obesity with or without diabetes: a meta-analysis of 182 anti-obesity medications trials. Communications Medicine [Internet]. 2026 June 5 [cited 2026 July 21];. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s43856-026-01659-7

Cizza G, Piaggi P, Rother KI, Csako G. Hawthorne Effect with Transient Behavioral and Biochemical Changes in a Randomized Controlled Sleep Extension Trial of Chronically Short-Sleeping Obese Adults: Implications for the Design and Interpretation of Clinical Studies. Penzel T, editor. PLoS ONE. 2014 Aug 20;9(8):e104176. 

Li Y, Liu W, Yu G. Dancing in Shackles: The Double-Edged Sword Effect of Felt Accountability on Work Outcomes and Individual Wellbeing. Frontiers in Psychology. 2022 June 10;13.

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