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A biophysical rethink of life, health, and disease through the lens of the Energy Resistance Principle (ERP).

Episode Summary: A reframe of biology as energy flow through resistance rather than mere molecular machinery, introducing the Energy Resistance Principle (ERP): life requires a Goldilocks balance of electron flow from food to oxygen via mitochondria; too much or too little resistance drives aging, disease, and death. Explain mitochondria as energy transformers, link ERP to insulin resistance, psychiatric disorders, and healing, and explore health as a dynamic field-like state optimized by flux modulation.

About the guest: Nirosha Murugan, PhD is a biophysicist studying how physical signals pattern biology to decode and reprogram health; Martin Picard, PhD is a mitochondrial psychobiologist at Columbia University, exploring how mitochondrial energy dynamics connect to human experiences, health, and healing. They collaborate on biophotons, light emission, and multi-scale energy signaling.

Discussion Points:

• Mitochondria transform electrons from food into versatile electricity via proton gradients.
• Energy Resistance Principle: transformation needs resistance; chronic high resistance causes dissipative heat, damage, aging.
• GDF15 cytokine signals mitochondrial stress to brain, triggering energy conservation/mobilization.
• Insulin resistance: adaptive defense against electron overload, reversible by fasting/exercise.
• Psychiatric illness: excess brain energy resistance; exercise, keto, psychedelics redistribute flux.
• Health: dynamic optimization of energy resistance, not absence of disease.
• Healing: daily recovery from micro-damage via balanced resistance.
• Future: energy-based diagnostics/therapies (light, TMS) over molecule-only drugs.

*Not medical advice.

Reference Paper: The energy resistance principle

Related Episode:

• M&M 70: Mitochondria, Aging, Cellular Energy, Metabolism, Gray Hair Reversal & Brain-Body Communication | Martin Picard

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How artificial light impacts female menstrual cycles and their relationship to lunar cycles of the moon.

Summary: Dr. Förster talks about how biological clocks, including circadian, tidal, lunar, and annual cycles, regulate behaviors in various species, with a focus on lunar cycle effects on human menstrual cycles. They explore historical and modern data suggesting that menstrual cycles may synchronize with lunar phases, a phenomenon potentially disrupted by modern artificial lighting, particularly blue light from LEDs post-2010. The conversation also covers circadian rhythm mechanisms in fruit flies and humans, highlighting the role of light and neuropeptides in maintaining biological synchrony.

About guest: Charlotte Förster, PhD is a senior professor at the University of Würzburg specializing in chronobiology, particularly circadian rhythms in fruit flies, and has recently explored lunar cycle influences on human menstrual cycles.

Discussion Points:

• Biological Clocks: Various clocks (circadian, tidal, lunar, annual) regulate behaviors; circadian clocks manage 24-hour cycles, while lunar clocks influence reproduction in marine species like corals and Christmas Island crabs.
• Lunar Cycle & Menstruation: Historical data (pre-2010) showed many women’s menstrual cycles synchronized with lunar phases (full or new moon), but this decreased post-2010, possibly due to blue light from LEDs disrupting biological rhythms.
• Blue Light Impact: Blue light from modern devices mimics daylight, potentially desynchronizing circadian and lunar clocks, with melanopsin in the eyes playing a key role in light sensitivity.
• Winter Synchronization: Menstrual cycle synchrony with lunar phases is stronger in winter, particularly January, possibly due to brighter moonlight or gravitational effects when Earth is closest to the Sun.
• Circadian Mechanisms: In fruit flies, 240 neurons manage circadian rhythms via clock genes with a 24-hour feedback loop, conserved in humans, where neuropeptides regulate slower, sustained rhythms.
• Health Implications: Disrupted circadian rhythms can desynchronize body clocks, impacting digestion, immunity, and increasing risks of cardiovascular issues, obesity, and cancer.
• Lifestyle Tips: To maintain synchrony, maximize daytime light exposure, minimize nighttime blue light, time meals appropriately, and exercise during the day, not late at night.

Reference paper:

• Study: Synchronization of women’s menstruation with the Moon has

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The genetic & developmental changes behind bipedalism & human anatomy.

Wide release date: October 15, 2025.

Episode Summary: Dr. Terence Capellini talks about the evolution of bipedalism in humans, exploring when and why it emerged, the anatomical changes required, and the genetic mechanisms behind these adaptations. They discuss how environmental shifts, like shrinking forests, drove the need for upright walking, the gradual skeletal changes in the pelvis and limbs, and how these changes may have facilitated larger brain sizes. Capellini highlights the complexity of evolutionary processes, emphasizing the role of multiple genetic changes in regulatory regions rather than single genes.

About the guest: Terence Capellini, PhD is a professor and chair of the Department of Human Evolutionary Biology at Harvard University. His research focuses on developmental genetics and human evolution.

Discussion Points:

• Bipedalism likely became common ~3.5 million years ago with Australopithecus afarensis, with earlier hominins like Ardipithecus showing mosaic traits.
• Environmental changes, such as shrinking forests and expanding grasslands, created selective pressures favoring bipedal locomotion.
• The human pelvis evolved to be shorter, wider, and curved, with muscles like the gluteus medius shifting to stabilize upright walking.
• Genetic changes in non-coding regulatory regions, not protein-coding genes, drive the developmental shifts in pelvic growth, with hundreds of small-effect changes involved.
• Bipedalism may have widened the birth canal, potentially enabling the evolution of larger brains in later hominins like Homo erectus.
• Humans have more slow-twitch muscle fibers than chimpanzees, supporting endurance activities like long-distance running, possibly linked to energetic trade-offs with brain growth.
• Shoulder and arm adaptations for throwing and tool use evolved more gradually, becoming prominent ~2 million years ago with Homo erectus.

Reference paper:

• Study: The evolution of hominin bipedalism in two steps

Related content:

• M&M 171: Comparative Brain Evolution: Mammals, Primates & Humans | Robert Barton

*Not medical advice.

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The biological roots of sleep are tied to mitochondrial metabolism.

Episode Summary: Dr. Gero Miesenböck discusses the evolutionary and metabolic basis of sleep, exploring how mitochondrial energy production in neurons, particularly in fruit flies, drives the need for sleep to manage harmful byproducts like reactive oxygen species and lipid peroxides. They discuss how sleep-inducing neurons sense these byproducts, the role of mitochondrial dynamics, and the broader implications for why all animals, from jellyfish to humans, require sleep. The conversation also touches on how body size and metabolism influence sleep needs across species.

About the guest: Gero Miesenböck, MD is a professor of physiology at the University of Oxford, renowned for his pioneering work in optogenetics and his research on the neurobiology of sleep using fruit flies and mice.

Discussion Points:

• Sleep is universal across animals, even in jellyfish without centralized brains, suggesting a fundamental metabolic purpose tied to mitochondrial energy production.
• Mitochondria produce energy efficiently using oxygen but generate reactive oxygen species that can damage cells through lipid peroxidation, necessitating sleep to repair this damage.
• Sleep-inducing neurons in fruit flies contain sensors that track lipid peroxidation products, acting like a digital memory to signal when sleep is needed.
• Smaller animals with faster metabolisms, like mice, require more sleep and have shorter lifespans due to higher oxygen consumption and oxidative stress.
• Mitochondrial diseases in humans often cause intense tiredness, likely due to increased electron leaks in the mitochondrial energy production process.
• The evolutionary origin of sleep likely stems from the oxygen revolution 2.5 billion years ago, enabling complex life but requiring mechanisms like sleep to manage metabolic side effects.
• Caloric restriction reduces sleep need by lowering the production of harmful metabolic byproducts, supporting the link between metabolism and sleep.

Reference paper:

• Study: Mitochondrial origins of the pressure to sleep

Related content:

• M&M 12: Organisms, Cities, Companies & the Science of Scale | Geoffrey West

*Not medical advice.

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The surprising link between oral bacteria and heart disease.

Episode Summary: Dr. Pekka Karhunen explains the connection between oral bacteria, cholesterol, and cardiovascular disease, discussing how oxidized LDL cholesterol triggers inflammation in arteries, how bacteria from the mouth can infiltrate arterial plaques to form biofilms, and the implications for heart disease prevention through lifestyle changes like better oral hygiene.

About the guest: Pekka Karhunen, MD, PhD is a medical doctor and forensic pathologist with decades of experience, specializing in cardiovascular diseases. He has created a unique biobank of coronary arteries from over 10,000 autopsies conducted in Finland. His research focuses on the role of bacteria in atherosclerosis, particularly through studying coronary artery plaques.

Discussion Points:

• Cholesterol is essential for life, but oxidized low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol is seen as a foreign substance by the immune system, leading to chronic inflammation in coronary arteries.
• Macrophages ingest oxidized LDL, turning into dysfunctional foam cells that contribute to plaque buildup, known as atheromas, in arteries.
• Plaque rupture, potentially caused by increased pressure from cholesterol accumulation or hemorrhage within the plaque, can trigger heart attacks.
• Bacteria, especially from the mouth, can enter arterial plaques via bacteremia (e.g., from dental procedures) and form biofilms, evading immune detection.
• Biofilms in plaques, made of extracellular matrix like polysaccharides, protect bacteria and may contribute to plaque instability or calcification over time.
• Poor oral hygiene is linked to higher cardiovascular disease risk, as bacteria from dental infections can enter plaques, suggesting dental care as a preventive measure.
• Karhunen’s research found oral bacteria, like Viridans streptococci, in coronary plaques, with unpublished data also detecting gut and skin bacteria, indicating diverse bacterial involvement.

Related content:

• M&M 247: Cholesterol: Immune Benefits, Heart Health, Statins & Research Malpractice | Uffe Ravnskov

*Not medical advice.

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How nutrition and medications impact mitochondrial health.

Episode Summary: Dr. Chris Masterjohn talks about the intricate relationships between nutrition, prescription drugs, and mitochondrial health, discussing how molecules like acetaminophen and SSRIs affect the body beyond their intended purposes, particularly impacting inflammation and energy metabolism. The discussion gets into the broader implications of serotonin outside the brain, the side effects of commonly used medications, and the importance of personalized nutritional strategies to optimize mitochondrial function.

About the guest: Chris Masterjohn, PhD holds a doctorate in nutritional sciences and is a co-founder of Mitome, a company focused on mitochondrial testing to optimize cellular energy production.

Discussion Points:

• Acetaminophen & Inflammation: Acetaminophen (Tylenol) may contribute to chronic low-grade inflammation by blocking both the initiation and resolution of inflammation, potentially linked to health issues like autism when used during pregnancy.
• Serotonin’s Role Beyond the Brain: Approximately 95% of serotonin is found in the gut, regulating motility, with SSRIs causing side effects like nausea due to increased extracellular serotonin.
• SSRIs & Mitochondrial Function: SSRIs disrupt serotonin uptake into cells, reducing mitochondrial melatonin production, which impairs the body’s ability to handle hypoxic stress and produce ATP efficiently.
• Statins & Mitochondrial Impact: Statins, used to lower cholesterol, inhibit the mevalonate pathway, affecting not just cholesterol but also CoQ10 and vitamin K2, crucial for mitochondrial function, potentially leading to side effects like myopathy.
• Mitochondrial Testing with Mitome: Masterjohn’s company, Mitome, uses cheek swab tests to measure mitochondrial respiratory chain activity, providing personalized dietary and lifestyle recommendations to optimize cellular energy production.
• Nutrition & Mental Health: Masterjohn shares his personal experience of severe mental health issues on a vegan diet, which improved dramatically with a nutrient-dense diet rich in organ meats, highlighting individual nutritional needs.
• Energy Metabolism’s Universal Role: Mitochondrial ATP production governs everything from daily energy levels to long-term health, with personalized testing helping identify and address specific bottlenecks.

*Not medical advice.

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Genetic & environmental factors that affect brain health, including why people age faster in outer space. (Note: technical difficulties affected the audio quality of this recording somewhat)

Episode Summary: Dr. Jacob Raber explains how apolipoproteins, particularly ApoE, influence brain health and disease risk; their role in cholesterol metabolism, Alzheimer’s disease, and responses to environmental stressors like radiation and viral infections; interplay between genetics, diet, and lifestyle factors, highlighting how these affect cognitive function and resilience to stress; research into space radiation, the gut-brain axis, and potential interventions for neurodegenerative diseases.

About the guest: Jacob Raber, PhD, is a neuroscientist at Oregon Health & Science University (OHSU) in Portland, where he leads a lab studying genetic and environmental influences on brain health, particularly using mouse models with human genes.

Discussion Points:

• Apolipoproteins (ApoE2, E3, E4) are proteins involved in cholesterol and lipid metabolism in the brain, with ApoE4 increasing risks for Alzheimer’s and cardiovascular disease.
• ApoE4 carriers may face higher risks for cognitive decline but could have advantages in specific contexts, like fertility or certain infections.
• Environmental stressors, such as space radiation and viral infections like West Nile, can exacerbate oxidative stress, impacting brain health.
• The gut microbiome influences brain function indirectly via the gut-liver-brain axis, with ongoing studies exploring its role in Alzheimer’s and traumatic brain injury.
• Lifestyle factors like diet, exercise, and sleep are critical for brain health, potentially mitigating genetic risks like ApoE4.
• Statins, commonly used for cholesterol management, may impair learning in healthy animals, suggesting context-dependent effects.
• Research into space radiation reveals potential therapeutic applications, such as using heavy ion radiation for cancer treatment.
• Genetic variations, including ethnicity and sex, influence ApoE-related disease risks, with women and certain populations showing higher Alzheimer’s susceptibility.
• Chronic low-level stressors, like air pollution, may pose greater risks to brain health than acute exposures due to insufficient activation of protective mechanisms.

Related content:

• M&M 165: PUFAs in Brain Health & Disease, Dietary Fats, Brain Lipids, Nutrition | Richard Bazinet

*Not medical advice

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How maternal obesity epigenetically reprograms liver metabolism in offspring, predisposing them to metabolic disease.

Episode Summary: Dr. Elvira Mass talks about macrophages, specialized immune cells that vary by tissue and play crucial roles beyond fighting infections, such as supporting organ function; Kupffer cells (liver macrophages) and how maternal obesity during pregnancy reprograms these cells in offspring, leading to fatty liver disease, fibrosis, and even cancer later in life, based on mouse studies showing epigenetic and metabolic shifts like increased glycolysis, with insights into developmental windows, nutritional mismatches, and broader implications for human health.

About the guest: Elvira Mass, PhD, is a Professor of Developmental Immunology at the University of Bonn in Germany, where her lab focuses on the development and function of macrophages in various tissues.

Discussion Points:

• Macrophages are diverse, tissue-specific cells that develop from embryonic precursors, performing unique tasks like providing growth factors in organs.
• Kupffer cells in the liver monitor blood from the gut and are exposed to maternal nutrients during fetal development.
• Maternal obesity (induced in mice via high-fat diets) programs offspring Kupffer cells epigenetically, leading to fatty liver in newborns and progression to diseases like cancer, even on normal diets.
• A "nutritional mismatch" between in utero high-fat exposure and postnatal normal diets worsens liver issues, as cells are "prepared" for excess high-fat intake but face scarcity.
• Key mechanism: Reprogrammed Kupffer cells overproduce apolipoproteins, driving excess lipid uptake in liver cells (hepatocytes), linked to transcription factor HIF-1α and a shift to inefficient glycolysis.
• Offspring from obese mothers show sex differences (males affected earlier) and persistent changes.
• Human parallels: Rising childhood fatty liver (once rare and tied to alcoholism) correlates with maternal obesity; studies like Dutch Hunger Winter show early gestational disruptions cause lifelong issues.
• Broader factors: Microbiome changes, specific fatty acids, and environmental toxins like microplastics may also reprogram macrophages; diets in studies vary beyond fat content, affecting results.
• Advice: Maintain consistent healthy habits pre- and during pregnancy; avoid sudden diet shifts, as developmental windows are critical for long-lived cells like Kupffer cells.

Reference Paper:

• Study: Kupffer cell programming by

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Aging, tissue repair, and the longevity benefits of psilocin.

Episode Summary: Dr. Louise Hecker discusses her research on tissue repair and regeneration, explaining how fibroblasts drive wound healing by forming scar tissue but fail to resolve properly with age, leading to fibrotic diseases like pulmonary fibrosis and liver cirrhosis; they discuss aging hallmarks such as oxidative stress and telomere shortening, and highlight Hecker's study showing psilocybin's active metabolite, psilocin, extends cellular lifespan in lab cultures by reducing oxidants and preserving telomeres, while monthly doses in aged mice improved appearance and survival rates.

About the guest: Louise Hecker, PhD is an Associate Professor of Medicine at Baylor College of Medicine, specializing in repair and regeneration processes, particularly in aging and fibrotic diseases.

Discussion Points:

• Fibroblasts are dormant cells that activate during injury to pull wounds closed and form scars, then de-differentiate or die; aging impairs this, causing persistent scarring and disease.
• Aging reduces the body's regenerative capacity; different organs vary in repair efficiency, with skin healing better than heart tissue.
• Oxidative stress, like "rust" in the body, accumulates with age due to imbalanced reactive oxygen species production and antioxidant defenses, contributing to cellular damage.
• Telomeres act as protective DNA caps that shorten with cell divisions, serving as a hallmark of biological aging; sirtuins are master regulators influencing aging processes.
• Hecker's in vitro study showed psilocin dose-dependently extended fibroblast lifespan by 29-50%, lowering oxidative stress below young cell levels and preserving telomeres.
• In aged mice (equivalent to 60-65 human years), monthly high-dose psilocybin (15 mg/kg) led to healthier appearance, regrown fur, and 80% survival when controls reached 50% mortality after 10 months.
• Psilocybin's effects may stem from serotonin receptors expressed in many cell types beyond the brain, suggesting broader anti-aging potential; future work explores mechanisms, optimal dosing, and applications for age-related diseases.
• Fungi like magic mushrooms represent an under-explored "kingdom" for medicine, with psilocybin's durable effects hinting at systemic impacts on aging.

Reference Paper:

• Study: Psilocybin treatment extends cellular lifespan and improves survival of aged mice

Related content:

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The effects of protein restriction on metabolism, liver hormones, brain, and behavior.

Episode Summary: Dr. Christopher Morrison talks about how animals sense and prioritize nutrients like protein, discussing defense mechanisms for essentials such as oxygen, water, sodium, and energy; the brain's role in detecting protein deprivation via signals like FGF21; trade-offs between growth, reproduction, and longevity under protein restriction; and reconciling high-protein diets for satiety and muscle maintenance with low-protein benefits for metabolic health and lifespan extension.

About the guest: Christopher Morrison, PhD is a professor and researcher at the Pennington Biomedical Research Center in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, where he has worked for over 22 years focusing on nutrition, metabolism, and chronic diseases like obesity and diabetes.

Discussion Points:

• The body prioritizes nutrients hierarchically: oxygen and water first, then sodium, energy, and protein, with weaker defenses for carbs or fats.
• Animals develop specific appetites for deprived nutrients, like salt or protein, often through post-ingestive learning rather than just taste.
• Protein restriction (e.g., 5% vs. 20% in diets) increases food intake and energy expenditure in mice to maintain protein levels, even at the cost of extra calories.
• FGF21, a liver hormone, signals protein deprivation to the brain (via NTS region), driving protein-seeking behavior and metabolic changes; it's essential for low-protein responses.
• Protein restriction extends lifespan in lab animals by suppressing growth signals like IGF-1 and mTOR, but may impair immunity or wound healing in real-world conditions.
• High protein aids satiety, weight loss, and muscle building, but overconsumption may shorten lifespan; optimal intake depends on age, activity, and goals (e.g., not for pregnant or elderly).
• No one-size-fits-all for protein: mild restriction may benefit middle-aged sedentary people for health, while athletes need more; balance avoids excesses.

Related content:

• M&M 106: Diet, Macronutrients, Micronutrients, Taste, Whole vs. Processed Food, Obesity & Weight Loss, Comparative Biology of Feeding Behavior | Stephen Simpson & David Raubenheimer

*Not medical advice.

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