Perspectives in History

Having vanquished his rivals, Septimius Severus works to solidify his grasp on power. Scorning the senate, he enacts significant military reforms that put the Roman Empire on the path towards military dictatorship.

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Bibliography

Amon, Hermann. The Roman Empire Third Century Crisis. Brill, 2026

Ando, Clifford. Imperial Rome, AD 193 to 284: The Critical Century. Edinburgh University Press, 2012.

Brown, Peter. The World of Late Antiquity. AD 150-750. W.W. Norton & Company, 1989.

Bowman, Alan K., Peter Garnsey, and Averil Cameron. The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol 12, The Crisis of Empire, A.D. 193-337. Cambridge University Press, 2008. 

Dio, Cassius. The Roman History. Translated by Earnest Cary and Herbert B. Foster. Vol. 1-9. Loeb Classical Library and Harvard University Press, 1924. 

Gibbon, Edward. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. 1-3.  Alfred A. Knopf, 1993

Harper, Kyle. The Fate of Rome: Climate, Disease and the End of an Empire. Princeton University Press, 2017.

Herodian. History of the Roman Empire: From the Death of Marcus Aurelius to the Accession of Gordian III. Translated by Edward C. Echols. University of California Press, 1961.

Lewis, Naphtali and Reinhold, Meyer. Roman Civilization: Selected Readings. Vol. II, Columbia University Press, 1990.

Potter, David S. The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180-395. Routledge, 2004.

Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. Routledge, 2001.

Cover Image: Detail of the ‘Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus.’ Dated to 250-260 CE, currently on display in the Museo Nazionale Romano.

Opening Theme: Symphony No. 9 in E minor, "From the New World", Op. 95, B. 178 by Antonín Dvořák. 

Closing Theme: Movement II of “Pines of Rome.” Composed by Otto Respighi. Recording of 1959 performance by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Fritz Reiner. 

The sudden demise of the reviled emperor Commodus sparks a civil war within the Roman Empire. Facing off against several rival claimants, an unassuming senator of North African origin named Septimius Severus emerges victorious from the power struggle.

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Bibliography

Amon, Hermann. The Roman Empire Third Century Crisis. Brill, 2026

Ando, Clifford. Imperial Rome, AD 193 to 284: The Critical Century. Edinburgh University Press, 2012.

Brown, Peter. The World of Late Antiquity. AD 150-750. W.W. Norton & Company, 1989.

Bowman, Alan K., Peter Garnsey, and Averil Cameron. The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol 12, The Crisis of Empire, A.D. 193-337. Cambridge University Press, 2008. 

Dio, Cassius. The Roman History. Translated by Earnest Cary and Herbert B. Foster. Vol. 1-9. Loeb Classical Library and Harvard University Press, 1924. 

Gibbon, Edward. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. 1-3.  Alfred A. Knopf, 1993

Harper, Kyle. The Fate of Rome: Climate, Disease and the End of an Empire. Princeton University Press, 2017.

Herodian. History of the Roman Empire: From the Death of Marcus Aurelius to the Accession of Gordian III. Translated by Edward C. Echols. University of California Press, 1961.

Lewis, Naphtali and Reinhold, Meyer. Roman Civilization: Selected Readings. Vol. II, Columbia University Press, 1990.

Potter, David S. The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180-395. Routledge, 2004.

Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. Routledge, 2001.

Cover Image: Detail of the ‘Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus.’ Dated to 250-260 CE, currently on display in the Museo Nazionale Romano.

Opening Theme: Symphony No. 9 in E minor, "From the New World", Op. 95, B. 178 by Antonín Dvořák. 

Closing Theme: Movement II of “Pines of Rome.” Composed by Otto Respighi. Recording of 1959 performance by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Fritz Reiner. 

Groomed from birth to become emperor, Commodus takes power at age 18 after the death of his father, Marcus Aurelius. Entirely uninterested in the affairs of state, his reign would be characterized by intrigue, scandal, and corruption- culminating in his assassination at the hands of his closest allies.

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Bibliography

Amon, Hermann. The Roman Empire Third Century Crisis. Brill, 2026

Ando, Clifford. Imperial Rome, AD 193 to 284: The Critical Century. Edinburgh University Press, 2012.

Brown, Peter. The World of Late Antiquity. AD 150-750. W.W. Norton & Company, 1989.

Bowman, Alan K., Peter Garnsey, and Averil Cameron. The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol 12, The Crisis of Empire, A.D. 193-337. Cambridge University Press, 2008. 

Dio, Cassius. The Roman History. Translated by Earnest Cary and Herbert B. Foster. Vol. 1-9. Loeb Classical Library and Harvard University Press, 1924. 

Gibbon, Edward. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. 1-3.  Alfred A. Knopf, 1993

Harper, Kyle. The Fate of Rome: Climate, Disease and the End of an Empire. Princeton University Press, 2017.

Herodian. History of the Roman Empire: From the Death of Marcus Aurelius to the Accession of Gordian III. Translated by Edward C. Echols. University of California Press, 1961.

Lewis, Naphtali and Reinhold, Meyer. Roman Civilization: Selected Readings. Vol. II, Columbia University Press, 1990.

Potter, David S. The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180-395. Routledge, 2004.

Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. Routledge, 2001.

Cover Image: Detail of the ‘Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus.’ Dated to 250-260 CE, currently on display in the Museo Nazionale Romano.

Opening Theme: Symphony No. 9 in E minor, "From the New World", Op. 95, B. 178 by Antonín Dvořák. 

Closing Theme: Movement II of “Pines of Rome.” Composed by Otto Respighi. Recording of 1959 performance by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Fritz Reiner. 

At the time that Marcus Aurelius became emperor in 161, the Roman Empire had enjoyed nearly two centuries of relative peace and prosperity. Over the 19 years of his reign, he would be forced to contend with a cascading sequence of wars, plague, natural disasters and civil conflict that gravely undermined the stability of the empire.

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Bibliography

Amon, Hermann. The Roman Empire Third Century Crisis. Brill, 2026

Ando, Clifford. Imperial Rome, AD 193 to 284: The Critical Century. Edinburgh University Press, 2012.

Brown, Peter. The World of Late Antiquity. AD 150-750. W.W. Norton & Company, 1989.

Bowman, Alan K., Peter Garnsey, and Averil Cameron. The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol 12, The Crisis of Empire, A.D. 193-337. Cambridge University Press, 2008. 

Dio, Cassius. The Roman History. Translated by Earnest Cary and Herbert B. Foster. Vol. 1-9. Loeb Classical Library and Harvard University Press, 1924. 

Gibbon, Edward. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. 1-3.  Alfred A. Knopf, 1993

Harper, Kyle. The Fate of Rome: Climate, Disease and the End of an Empire. Princeton University Press, 2017.

Herodian. History of the Roman Empire: From the Death of Marcus Aurelius to the Accession of Gordian III. Translated by Edward C. Echols. University of California Press, 1961.

Lewis, Naphtali and Reinhold, Meyer. Roman Civilization: Selected Readings. Vol. II, Columbia University Press, 1990.

Potter, David S. The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180-395. Routledge, 2004.

Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. Routledge, 2001.

Cover Image: Detail of the ‘Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus.’ Dated to 250-260 CE, currently on display in the Museo Nazionale Romano.

Opening Theme: Symphony No. 9 in E minor, "From the New World", Op. 95, B. 178 by Antonín Dvořák. 

Closing Theme: Movement II of “Pines of Rome.” Composed by Otto Respighi. Recording of 1959 performance by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Fritz Reiner. 

Ousted from government after the failed rebellion of January 1941, the Iron Guard is once again outlawed and forced underground. With the fate of the Romanian nation out of their hands, the members of the Legionary movement are faced with a stark choice: renounce their beliefs and remain in their homeland, or hold true to their convictions and face perpetual exile.

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Bibliography

Clark, Roland. Holy Legionary Youth: Fascist Activism in Interwar Romania. Cornell University Press, 2015

Codreanu, Cornelieu Zelea. For My Legionaries. Black House Publishing Ltd, 2015

Hitchins, Keith. A Concise History of Romania. Cambridge University Press, 2014

Ioanid, Radu. The Sword of the Archangel: Fascist Ideology in Romania. Columbia University Press, 1990

Iordachi, Constantin. The Fascist Faith of the Legion “Archangel Michael” in Romania, 1927-1941: Martyrdom and National Purification. Routledge, 2023

Kaplan, Robert D. Balkan Ghosts: A Journey Through History. Picador, 2005.

Nagy-Talavera, Nicholas. The Green Shirts and the Others: A History of Fascism in Hungary and Romania. Hoover Institution Press, 1970. 

Tiu, Ilarion. The Legionary Movement after Corneliu Codreanu. Columbia University Press, 2009

Sturdza, Michel. The Suicide of Europe: Memoirs of Prince Michel Sturdza, Former Foreign Minister of Rumania. Islands Publishers, 1968.

Sima, Horia. The History of the Legionary Movement. The Legionary Press, 1995

Cover Image: Romanian prime minister Ion Antonescu and deputy prime minister Horia Sima at a demonstration memorializing Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, the late founder of the Iron Guard. (Bucharest, Romania. October, 1940.)

Opening Theme: Symphony No. 9 in E minor, "From the New World", Op. 95, B. 178 by Antonín Dvořák.

Closing Theme: “Sfanta Tinerete Legionara,” (Hymn of the Legionary Youth) 

As Romania finds itself drawn into Germany’s war against the Soviet Union, the tenuous political partnership between the Legion and the Romanian military reaches a crisis point. Confident of Berlin’s support, the Iron Guard makes a bid to seize full control of the government- with deadly results.

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Bibliography

Clark, Roland. Holy Legionary Youth: Fascist Activism in Interwar Romania. Cornell University Press, 2015

Codreanu, Cornelieu Zelea. For My Legionaries. Black House Publishing Ltd, 2015

Hitchins, Keith. A Concise History of Romania. Cambridge University Press, 2014

Ioanid, Radu. The Sword of the Archangel: Fascist Ideology in Romania. Columbia University Press, 1990

Iordachi, Constantin. The Fascist Faith of the Legion “Archangel Michael” in Romania, 1927-1941: Martyrdom and National Purification. Routledge, 2023

Kaplan, Robert D. Balkan Ghosts: A Journey Through History. Picador, 2005.

Nagy-Talavera, Nicholas. The Green Shirts and the Others: A History of Fascism in Hungary and Romania. Hoover Institution Press, 1970. 

Tiu, Ilarion. The Legionary Movement after Corneliu Codreanu. Columbia University Press, 2009

Sturdza, Michel. The Suicide of Europe: Memoirs of Prince Michel Sturdza, Former Foreign Minister of Rumania. Islands Publishers, 1968.

Sima, Horia. The History of the Legionary Movement. The Legionary Press, 1995

Cover Image: Romanian prime minister Ion Antonescu and deputy prime minister Horia Sima at a demonstration memorializing Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, the late founder of the Iron Guard. (Bucharest, Romania. October, 1940.)

Closing Theme: “Sfanta Tinerete Legionara,” (Hymn of the Legionary Youth) 

Emerging from years of persecution, the Iron Guard finally rises to power in Romania with the assistance of their ally, General Ion Antonescu. However, with their leadership decimated and their organization fractured, it remains an open question if the Legionary movement is prepared for the challenges of governance.

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Bibliography

Clark, Roland. Holy Legionary Youth: Fascist Activism in Interwar Romania. Cornell University Press, 2015

Codreanu, Cornelieu Zelea. For My Legionaries. Black House Publishing Ltd, 2015

Hitchins, Keith. A Concise History of Romania. Cambridge University Press, 2014

Ioanid, Radu. The Sword of the Archangel: Fascist Ideology in Romania. Columbia University Press, 1990

Iordachi, Constantin. The Fascist Faith of the Legion “Archangel Michael” in Romania, 1927-1941: Martyrdom and National Purification. Routledge, 2023

Kaplan, Robert D. Balkan Ghosts: A Journey Through History. Picador, 2005.

Nagy-Talavera, Nicholas. The Green Shirts and the Others: A History of Fascism in Hungary and Romania. Hoover Institution Press, 1970. 

Tiu, Ilarion. The Legionary Movement after Corneliu Codreanu. Columbia University Press, 2009

Sturdza, Michel. The Suicide of Europe: Memoirs of Prince Michel Sturdza, Former Foreign Minister of Rumania. Islands Publishers, 1968.

Sima, Horia. The History of the Legionary Movement. The Legionary Press, 1995

Cover Image: Romanian prime minister Ion Antonescu and deputy prime minister Horia Sima at a demonstration memorializing Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, the late founder of the Iron Guard. (Bucharest, Romania. October, 1940.)

Closing Theme: “Sfanta Tinerete Legionara,” (Hymn of the Legionary Youth) 

The power struggle between the Legion and King Carol II continues to play out, with deadly consequences. Meanwhile, the upending of the status quo in Europe in the run up to the Second World War gives the Legion a chance to avoid total annihilation.

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Bibliography

Clark, Roland. Holy Legionary Youth: Fascist Activism in Interwar Romania. Cornell University Press, 2015

Codreanu, Cornelieu Zelea. For My Legionaries. Black House Publishing Ltd, 2015

Hitchins, Keith. A Concise History of Romania. Cambridge University Press, 2014

Ioanid, Radu. The Sword of the Archangel: Fascist Ideology in Romania. Columbia University Press, 1990

Iordachi, Constantin. The Fascist Faith of the Legion “Archangel Michael” in Romania, 1927-1941: Martyrdom and National Purification. Routledge, 2023

Kaplan, Robert D. Balkan Ghosts: A Journey Through History. Picador, 2005.

Nagy-Talavera, Nicholas. The Green Shirts and the Others: A History of Fascism in Hungary and Romania. Hoover Institution Press, 1970. 

Tiu, Ilarion. The Legionary Movement after Corneliu Codreanu. Columbia University Press, 2009

Sturdza, Michel. The Suicide of Europe: Memoirs of Prince Michel Sturdza, Former Foreign Minister of Rumania. Islands Publishers, 1968.

Sima, Horia. The History of the Legionary Movement. The Legionary Press, 1995

Cover Image: Romanian prime minister Ion Antonescu and deputy prime minister Horia Sima at a demonstration memorializing Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, the late founder of the Iron Guard. (Bucharest, Romania. October, 1940.)

Closing Theme: “Sfanta Tinerete Legionara,” (Hymn of the Legionary Youth) 

In the face of continued government repression, the Iron Guard resorts to extreme retaliatory measures. After the Legion stages an ostentatious display of its growing power, the stage is set for a confrontation with Romania’s king, Carol II.

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Bibliography

Clark, Roland. Holy Legionary Youth: Fascist Activism in Interwar Romania. Cornell University Press, 2015

Codreanu, Cornelieu Zelea. For My Legionaries. Black House Publishing Ltd, 2015

Hitchins, Keith. A Concise History of Romania. Cambridge University Press, 2014

Ioanid, Radu. The Sword of the Archangel: Fascist Ideology in Romania. Columbia University Press, 1990

Iordachi, Constantin. The Fascist Faith of the Legion “Archangel Michael” in Romania, 1927-1941: Martyrdom and National Purification. Routledge, 2023

Kaplan, Robert D. Balkan Ghosts: A Journey Through History. Picador, 2005.

Nagy-Talavera, Nicholas. The Green Shirts and the Others: A History of Fascism in Hungary and Romania. Hoover Institution Press, 1970. 

Tiu, Ilarion. The Legionary Movement after Corneliu Codreanu. Columbia University Press, 2009

Sturdza, Michel. The Suicide of Europe: Memoirs of Prince Michel Sturdza, Former Foreign Minister of Rumania. Islands Publishers, 1968.

Sima, Horia. The History of the Legionary Movement. The Legionary Press, 1995

Cover Image: Romanian prime minister Ion Antonescu and deputy prime minister Horia Sima at a demonstration memorializing Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, the late founder of the Iron Guard. (Bucharest, Romania. October, 1940.)

Closing Theme: “Sfanta Tinerete Legionara,” (Hymn of the Legionary Youth) 

The “Legion of the Archangel Michael” struggles to establish itself as a new force in Romanian politics. As the Legion builds up a strong coalition of disaffected groups within Romanian society, the authorities begin to crack down against the movement.

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Bibliography

Clark, Roland. Holy Legionary Youth: Fascist Activism in Interwar Romania. Cornell University Press, 2015

Codreanu, Cornelieu Zelea. For My Legionaries. Black House Publishing Ltd, 2015

Hitchins, Keith. A Concise History of Romania. Cambridge University Press, 2014

Ioanid, Radu. The Sword of the Archangel: Fascist Ideology in Romania. Columbia University Press, 1990

Iordachi, Constantin. The Fascist Faith of the Legion “Archangel Michael” in Romania, 1927-1941: Martyrdom and National Purification. Routledge, 2023

Kaplan, Robert D. Balkan Ghosts: A Journey Through History. Picador, 2005.

Nagy-Talavera, Nicholas. The Green Shirts and the Others: A History of Fascism in Hungary and Romania. Hoover Institution Press, 1970. 

Tiu, Ilarion. The Legionary Movement after Corneliu Codreanu. Columbia University Press, 2009

Sturdza, Michel. The Suicide of Europe: Memoirs of Prince Michel Sturdza, Former Foreign Minister of Rumania. Islands Publishers, 1968.

Sima, Horia. The History of the Legionary Movement. The Legionary Press, 1995

Cover Image: Romanian prime minister Ion Antonescu and deputy prime minister Horia Sima at a demonstration memorializing Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, the late founder of the Iron Guard. (Bucharest, Romania. October, 1940.)

Closing Theme: “Sfanta Tinerete Legionara,” (Hymn of the Legionary Youth)