The 16th-century Dominican theologian Francisco de Vitoria has been hailed as the father of international law. Vitoria's teachings at the University of Salamanca shaped the foundation of modern natural law and human rights, from his pioneering defense of indigenous rights in the New World to his profound contributions to political theory.

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Born in 1851, Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk distinguished himself as an economist, writing on theories of capital and interest. His work, Karl Marx and the Close of His System, remains one of the most thorough rebuttals of the labor theory of value. But beyond his work as an economist, Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk put theory into practice as a statesman arguing against the rapid fiscal expansion of the Austrian state.

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Over his 60-year career, English philosopher Herbert Spencer discussed a myriad of topics, including ethics, political philosophy, sociology, and psychology. Central to his intellectual journey, however, was his exploration of evolution—a concept that shaped his vision for a freer world. Though his name may not be widely recognized today, Spencer was once one of the foremost advocates for liberalism across the globe.

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Following World War II, Germany's economy was in ruins and was made even worse by ongoing price controls implemented by the state. Ludwig Erhard, an economist from a humble background, immediately abolished all price controls when elected director of economics in occupied Germany. The result is what economists and historians call an economic miracle, but what Erhard himself believed was the natural result of an economy freed from bureaucracy and state intervention.

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An episode interviewing senior fellow Mustafa Akyol about the life and legacy of Namık Kemal, the Ottoman journalist and author. Born into the Ottoman Empire during the 19th century, Namık Kemal became a prolific journalist and reformer who advocated for constitutional government within the Ottoman Empire. His outlook was defined by his commitment to individual rights that are applied equally to everyone. Though exiled by the Ottoman state numerous times, Namık Kemal helped pave the way for constitutional government to take hold.

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Born into poverty and indentured servitude, Lemuel Haynes became the most prominent black preacher of 18th-century America. He combined his experiences as a soldier of the American Revolution and a devout Calvinist to expound the philosophical principles of liberty. From the pulpit, he condemned slavery and upheld the principles of the American Revolution and the Declaration of Independence, that all men are created equal.

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Though obscure today, the German sociologist Franz Oppenheimer crafted a radical theory of the state. In his book The State, he argued that the state's origins were not in public justice or establishing laws but in the reign of a conquering group over their defeated foes. His work influenced libertarian theorists such as Albert Jay Nock, Walter Block, and Murray Rothbard.

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Despite its reputation as a dark age, the Medieval period was not devoid of intellectual substance. An example of this is William of Pagula, a 14th-century English priest and scholar who wrote The Mirror of King Edward III, a political treatise condemning the king's practice of purveyance and excessive taxation. Using a mixture of Biblical and Classical authorities, William made the moral case against interfering with property rights.

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Born into slavery, Elizabeth Freeman gained her freedom in 1781, eighty years before the American Civil War. Freeman did not escape to Pennsylvania as was common at the time. She gained her freedom through the courts. Upon winning her case, she changed her name to Elizabeth Freeman to celebrate her new life.

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Born between the Scottish Lowlands and Highlands, Ferguson made a name for himself writing philosophical history, an early precursor to sociology. In his famous work, An Essay on The History of Civil Society, Ferguson explained how civilization is refined over many generations  as society evolves to deal with ever-increasing complexity.  

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