Artificial intelligence is advancing rapidly in healthcare, but what could it mean for pre-hospital care? In this compilation episode, we bring together two conversations exploring how AI could support clinicians, improve decision-making, and transform the way emergency care is delivered.

We begin with Zane Perkins, exploring AI-TRiPS, an AI Risk Prediction and Decision Support System for trauma care. We discuss how AI and Bayesian networks could support clinical reasoning, identify risk and reduce cognitive burden in high-pressure environments such as major trauma and air ambulance care.

But with that potential comes important questions around trust, cognitive bias, human factors and clinical responsibility. What happens when clinicians disagree with an algorithm? And could we become too reliant on technology?

We then broaden the discussion with Nico Preston, exploring the wider applications of AI across pre-hospital care, from dispatch and demand prediction to diagnostics, risk stratification and clinical decision support.

Across both conversations, one theme becomes clear: the future of AI in emergency care is unlikely to be about replacing clinicians. Instead, the opportunity may be to create human–AI systems that combine computational power with clinical experience, judgement and contextual awareness. But getting that balance right will be critical. Can AI make us better clinicians, and how do we ensure we use it safely?

The most dangerous part of an intubation is often not the moment the laryngoscope goes in; it’s the ten minutes before it ever leaves the tray.

In this episode of the Pre-Hospital Care Podcast, we focus on The Last 10 Minutes Before Intubation: the critical phase where outcomes are often decided long before airway instrumentation begins. Joining us is Cosmo Scurr, Consultant Anaesthetist, bringing extensive experience in managing critically ill patients and high-risk airway emergencies. Cosmo brings an anaesthetist’s perspective to the physiology, preparation, decision-making and team behaviours that underpin safe airway management.

This is not a discussion about laryngoscopy technique. Instead, we explore the preparation, physiology and human factors that shape success or failure before the first attempt is made.

We’ll examine how experienced clinicians approach pre-oxygenation in sick, hypoxic patients, and why seemingly small decisions can dramatically influence peri-intubation oxygen reserve. We’ll explore the physiology of induction and the pitfalls of hypotension, including why cardiovascular collapse during airway management is often predictable rather than sudden.

The conversation also examines role allocation in high-acuity environments, failed-airway planning and cognitive load management when the room is under pressure. What does good preparation actually look like? How should teams approach equipment preparation, briefing, task allocation and contingency planning? And how can we create shared mental models before the situation becomes time-critical?

Ultimately, this episode is about recognising that airway management begins before the airway is touched. The quality of those final ten minutes may determine what happens in the ten minutes that follow.

Through a case-based lens, we’ll ask: what do experienced HEMS and critical care clinicians do differently in those final minutes? What habits, checks, and assumptions separate smooth intubations from catastrophic ones?

This episode is sponsored by PAX: The gold standard in emergency response bags.

When you’re working under pressure, your kit needs to be dependable, tough, and intuitive. That’s exactly what you get with PAX. Every bag is handcrafted by expert tailors who understand the demands of pre-hospital care. From the high-tech, skin-friendly, and environmentally responsible materials to the cutting-edge welding process that reduces seams and makes cleaning easier, PAX puts performance first. They’ve partnered with 3M to perfect reflective surfaces for better visibility, and the bright grey interior makes finding gear fast and effortless, even in low light. With over 200 designs, PAX bags are made to suit your role, needs, and environment. And thanks to their modular system, many bags work seamlessly together, no matter the setup.

PAX doesn’t chase trends. Their designs stay consistent, so once you know one, you know them all. And if your bag ever takes a beating? Their in-house repair team will bring it back to life.

PAX – built to perform, made to last.

Learn more at ⁠⁠https://www.pax-bags.com/en/⁠

High-fidelity simulation has become far more than an opportunity to practise clinical procedures in a controlled environment. For pre-hospital clinicians working in complex, unpredictable and high-stakes environments, simulation can provide something that conventional classroom teaching cannot: the opportunity to rehearse performance when the environment itself becomes part of the problem.

In this compilation episode of the Pre-Hospital Care Podcast, we bring together two conversations that explore how high-fidelity simulation can be designed, delivered and debriefed to create meaningful improvements in clinical and team performance.

We begin with Dr Neel Bhanderi, Head of Education and Training at MedSTAR Retrieval HEMS in Adelaide and Consultant in Emergency Medicine at the Royal Adelaide Hospital. Recorded in 2023, our conversation explores the concept of creating an "analogue of reality" and using simulation to introduce progressively more complex stressors into training. We discuss skills acquisition under stress, communication, handover, environmental noise, task loading, debriefing and the relationship between simulation and operational case review.

We then move to a more recent conversation with Ben King, Founder and CEO of Best Practice Medicine. Ben explores the role of high-fidelity simulation in preparing clinicians for the complexity and uncertainty of real-world pre-hospital care. We look at experiential learning, team coordination, human performance under stress, targeted debriefing and the use of video-assisted debriefing to translate simulation into measurable performance improvement.

Across both conversations, a common theme emerges: the value of simulation is not determined simply by how realistic the mannequin, environment or equipment looks. It is determined by how deliberately the simulation reproduces the cognitive, behavioural, environmental and interpersonal demands of clinical practice, and what happens during the debrief afterwards.

We explore:

• What actually makes simulation "high fidelity"?
• How can training progressively introduce stress without overwhelming learners?
• The difference between technical skills and performance in complex environments
• Communication and handover under pressure
• Environmental stressors, distraction and task loading
• Simulation as a tool for developing team performance
• How video can enhance debriefing and reflective learning
• Psychological safety during debriefing
• Using real-world case review to identify simulation and training needs
• Moving from simulation as an educational event to simulation as a performance-improvement system
• How we can better prepare clinicians for the reality of pre-hospital care

The central question is simple:

If we expect clinicians to perform under pressure, should we not train performance under pressure?

High Fidelity Simulation with Neel Bhanderi
Originally released 15 May 2023
Listen to the original episode on Apple Podcasts

High Fidelity Simulation in Pre-hospital Care: Training for Reality, Debriefing for Impact with Ben King
Originally released 27 April 2026
Listen to the original episode on Apple Podcasts

The Pre-Hospital Care Podcast brings together leading clinicians, researchers, educators and practitioners to explore the science, practice and human factors behind modern pre-hospital care.

If you enjoy the episode, please subscribe, leave a review and share it with a colleague involved in clinical education, simulation or pre-hospital care.

Resuscitation is often seen as individual performance, but cardiac arrest care is ultimately a system outcome, shaped by training, communication, leadership, feedback, and the systems supporting the team.

In this three-part debriefing series, I’m joined by David Hiltz as co-host, and in this first episode, Ann Doll from the Resuscitation Academy, to explore how high-performing systems turn resuscitation events into opportunities for learning and sustained improvement.

We explore how structured debriefing can create a feedback loop between frontline experience and organisational improvement, and how to build a culture where learning is routine rather than optional. We also examine lessons from aviation and other high-performance environments, where debriefing, safety reporting and incident analysis turn individual experiences and near misses into organisational learning.

If learning stays with one crew, the system learns very little. If it is captured, shared and translated into changes in training, processes or system design, one event can improve performance across an entire organisation.

Practical resources for debriefing and resuscitation improvement:

Resuscitation Academy — Ann Doll

The Resuscitation Academy provides a substantial library of free, practical resources for improving cardiac arrest systems and performance. Resources include e-books, toolkits, high-performance CPR materials, T-CPR resources, CARES resources, community CPR and PAD resources, as well as a free Cardiac Arrest System Self-Assessment.

ThriveIn — Bridgid Joseph

ThriveIn provides healthcare consulting and educational resources focused on quality improvement, staff education, patient safety, emergency cardiovascular care and innovation. Resources also include work relating to mock codes and improving cardiac arrest response.

360 Leadership Group — John Hiltz

The 360 Leadership Group provides resources and perspectives on high-performance teams, leadership, communication, preparation and debriefing, drawing heavily from the experience of former Blue Angels pilots and other high-performance environments.

Structured and Supported Debriefing

The Structured and Supported Debriefing Script provides a practical Gather → Analyze → Summarize approach. It includes facilitator questions designed to understand what happened, explore why it happened, identify what went well and what needs improvement, and support the team in identifying its own learning.

AHRQ TeamSTEPPS — Debriefing

The AHRQ TeamSTEPPS Debrief is one of the most immediately usable healthcare debriefing resources. It includes a debriefing checklist covering communication, roles, situational awareness, workload, resources, what went well and what could be improved. AHRQ also provides a short video demonstrating an emergency-department debrief.

FEMA — After-Action Review

The FEMA After-Action Review resources provide a more comprehensive approach to reviewing significant events. The AAR User Guide covers preparation, data collection, analysis, findings and improvement actions, alongside templates and tools for tracking whether recommended actions are completed.

NASA — Crew-Centered Debriefing

The NASA Guidelines for Facilitating Debriefings provide valuable insight from aviation human-factors research. The approach emphasises crew participation, self-discovery, effective questioning and facilitation rather than simply lecturing the team. This is particularly relevant to the idea that a facilitator's role is to help the team discover and articulate its own learning.

NASA Aviation Safety Reporting System — CALLBACK

The NASA ASRS CALLBACK provides a remarkable collection of real-world aviation lessons. Using de-identified safety reports and commentary, CALLBACK explores communication, decision-making, teamwork, human factors, and operational risk. It offers an excellent example of how individual experiences can be transformed into organisational learning.

Decision-making is one of the defining skills of pre-hospital practice. Every shift requires clinicians to interpret incomplete information, navigate uncertainty, balance competing risks, and make consequential decisions, often under intense time pressure. But does faster decision-making necessarily lead to better decisions?

In this compilation episode of the Pre-Hospital Care Podcast, we explore the anatomy of decision-making under pressure, examining the cognitive processes, mental models, and human factors that influence how emergency responders think, assess, and act.

We explore the limits of working memory through Miller’s Magic Number 7, the role of heuristics and intuition, inattention bias, cognitive overload, and the critical role of metacognition in recognising and improving our own decision-making. We also consider how stress, leadership, teamwork, experience, and limited resources shape decisions when the stakes are high.

Featuring insights from Olly Sapsford, Firefighter, Commander and Lecturer in Disaster & Emergency Management at Coventry University, alongside discussion of Radu Venter’s research into EMS decision-making, this compilation challenges the culture of constant urgency in emergency medicine and asks whether rushing decisions actually makes us better clinicians.

From the fireground to the ambulance and the clinical environment, we examine the OODA Loop, reflective practice, expertise, ethical decision-making, and the potential for technology and artificial intelligence to support, not replace, human judgement.

Ultimately, this episode asks a fundamental question: what does it take to make sound, timely, and patient-focused decisions when every decision counts? These are the individual episodes:

• The Anatomy of Decision Making Under High Pressure Situations
  Listen on Apple Podcasts
• Decision-Making Under High Pressure Situations – Part 2 with Olly Sapsford
  Listen on Apple Podcasts
• EMS Decision-Making: Rushing the OODA Loop with Radu Venter
  Listen on Apple Podcasts

In this episode, I’m joined by Neil Jeffers to explore Crew Resource Management (CRM) and why it remains one of the most important safety tools in aviation, healthcare, and pre-hospital care.

We begin by tracing the origins of CRM, examining how a series of aviation accidents shifted the focus from technical proficiency alone to the human factors that influence decision-making, communication, leadership, and teamwork.

Together, we discuss the relationship between human factors and CRM, exploring how errors occur, why even highly experienced professionals are vulnerable to them, and how effective teams recognise and manage threats before they lead to adverse outcomes. We also examine Threat and Error Management (TEM), the practical framework that underpins much of modern CRM, and consider how these principles apply in the dynamic and often unpredictable environments of HEMS, search and rescue, and pre-hospital medicine.

Neil brings a unique perspective, having accumulated over 8,000 flying hours, served as Chief Pilot for London’s Air Ambulance, worked as a CRM instructor and first responder, and now supporting Irish Coast Guard search and rescue operations.

This episode is sponsored by PAX: The gold standard in emergency response bags.

When you’re working under pressure, your kit needs to be dependable, tough, and intuitive. That’s exactly what you get with PAX. Every bag is handcrafted by expert tailors who understand the demands of pre-hospital care. From the high-tech, skin-friendly, and environmentally responsible materials to the cutting-edge welding process that reduces seams and makes cleaning easier, PAX puts performance first. They’ve partnered with 3M to perfect reflective surfaces for better visibility, and the bright grey interior makes finding gear fast and effortless, even in low light. With over 200 designs, PAX bags are made to suit your role, needs, and environment. And thanks to their modular system, many bags work seamlessly together, no matter the setup.

PAX doesn’t chase trends. Their designs stay consistent, so once you know one, you know them all. And if your bag ever takes a beating? Their in-house repair team will bring it back to life.

PAX – built to perform, made to last.

Learn more at ⁠https://www.pax-bags.com/en/⁠

Today, we’re joined by Diane Dollar, a pilot whose career sits at the intersection of frontline HEMS operations, training, and the future of the aviation workforce. Diane is a professional helicopter pilot and check airman for a major air medical operator, with a background that spans tours, VIP charter, organ transport, and helicopter air ambulance missions. Alongside this, she continues to fly electronic news gathering, bringing a broad operational perspective across high-pressure, real-world operations. 

Her aviation journey began in the U.S. Coast Guard, where exposure to search and rescue missions sparked a passion for flight, ultimately leading to more than a decade in the cockpit across diverse mission sets. But Diane’s impact extends well beyond flying. As the founder of Forever on the Fly, she’s building pathways into aviation through mentorship, STEM engagement, and large-scale “Dare to Dream” events, designed to inspire the next generation and address the lack of diversity in the cockpit. 

In this episode, we explore what that breadth of experience means for HEMS: decision-making under pressure, the realities of operational risk, and how culture, mentorship, and training shape safer, more effective crews.

This episode is sponsored by PAX: The gold standard in emergency response bags.

When you’re working under pressure, your kit needs to be dependable, tough, and intuitive. That’s exactly what you get with PAX. Every bag is handcrafted by expert tailors who understand the demands of pre-hospital care. From the high-tech, skin-friendly, and environmentally responsible materials to the cutting-edge welding process that reduces seams and makes cleaning easier, PAX puts performance first. They’ve partnered with 3M to perfect reflective surfaces for better visibility, and the bright grey interior makes finding gear fast and effortless, even in low light. With over 200 designs, PAX bags are made to suit your role, needs, and environment. And thanks to their modular system, many bags work seamlessly together, no matter the setup.

PAX doesn’t chase trends. Their designs stay consistent, so once you know one, you know them all. And if your bag ever takes a beating? Their in-house repair team will bring it back to life.

PAX – built to perform, made to last.

Learn more at ⁠https://www.pax-bags.com/en/⁠

Fatigue is one of the most significant yet under-recognised threats to safety in pre-hospital care. Every day, ambulance clinicians make complex clinical decisions, drive emergency vehicles, and care for critically ill patients while working long shifts, overnight hours, and often with inadequate recovery. Despite decades of evidence demonstrating the impact of fatigue on cognitive performance, decision-making and patient safety, healthcare has traditionally relied more on individual resilience than organisational systems designed to manage fatigue risk.

In this special compilation episode of the Pre-Hospital Care Podcast, we bring together two complementary conversations that explore not only what fatigue does to clinicians and patients, but also how ambulance services can begin addressing it through evidence-based practice.

We begin with Kristy Sanderson, whose work leads the ambitious CATNAPS programme. Drawing on lessons from aviation and other safety-critical industries, Kristy's research is developing a comprehensive Fatigue Risk Management System (FRMS) specifically designed for NHS ambulance services. We explore why current approaches often lack an empirical foundation, how CATNAPS is identifying interventions that are both acceptable and feasible, and what implementation could look like across the UK ambulance sector. The discussion also examines fatigue reporting, organisational culture, the realities of 12-hour shifts, fatigue mitigation strategies, and the wider consequences of fatigue for clinicians, patients and healthcare organisations.

In the second half of the episode, we're joined by Professor Daniel Patterson, one of the world's leading researchers in EMS fatigue science. Daniel explains the landmark Fatigue in EMS Project and the systematic reviews that informed the first evidence-based fatigue guidelines for EMS. Together, we explore the evidence surrounding shift length, strategic napping, caffeine, education, workload, fatigue modelling and why fatigue should be considered a systems-level patient safety issue.

Together, these conversations provide a comprehensive overview of both the implementation and the science of fatigue risk management, offering practical insights for clinicians, operational leaders, educators and researchers working to improve safety within pre-hospital care.

This episode is sponsored by PAX: The gold standard in emergency response bags.

When you’re working under pressure, your kit needs to be dependable, tough, and intuitive. That’s exactly what you get with PAX. Every bag is handcrafted by expert tailors who understand the demands of pre-hospital care. From the high-tech, skin-friendly, and environmentally responsible materials to the cutting-edge welding process that reduces seams and makes cleaning easier, PAX puts performance first. They’ve partnered with 3M to perfect reflective surfaces for better visibility, and the bright grey interior makes finding gear fast and effortless, even in low light. With over 200 designs, PAX bags are made to suit your role, needs, and environment. And thanks to their modular system, many bags work seamlessly together, no matter the setup.

PAX doesn’t chase trends. Their designs stay consistent, so once you know one, you know them all. And if your bag ever takes a beating? Their in-house repair team will bring it back to life.

PAX – built to perform, made to last.

Learn more at ⁠https://www.pax-bags.com/en/⁠

Cardiac arrest remains one of the most scrutinised and resource-intensive presentations in prehospital care. We invest heavily in improving what happens in the moment, compression quality, airway strategies, defibrillation timing, and team coordination. Yet one of the most powerful determinants of system performance often sits outside the resuscitation itself: what we do with the data afterwards.

In many services, once the patient is handed over or resuscitation is terminated, the process effectively stops. Information is fragmented, device data is reviewed inconsistently, and structured debriefing is applied variably. As a result, opportunities to identify system errors, reinforce high performance, and drive meaningful quality improvement are frequently lost.

At the same time, prehospital systems are generating more data than ever before CPR metrics, rhythm timelines, drug administration logs, and physiologic trends. The challenge is no longer collection, but conversion: turning raw resuscitation data into actionable learning. Layered on top of this is an emerging opportunity to deliver meaningful information to hospitals in real time, supporting earlier decision-making in the ED and cath lab before the patient even arrives.

In this episode, we explore how structured debriefing, post-arrest analysis, and improved data integration could transform cardiac arrest care from a series of isolated events into a continuous learning system spanning prehospital teams and receiving hospitals.

This episode is sponsored by PAX: The gold standard in emergency response bags.

When you’re working under pressure, your kit needs to be dependable, tough, and intuitive. That’s exactly what you get with PAX. Every bag is handcrafted by expert tailors who understand the demands of pre-hospital care. From the high-tech, skin-friendly, and environmentally responsible materials to the cutting-edge welding process that reduces seams and makes cleaning easier, PAX puts performance first. They’ve partnered with 3M to perfect reflective surfaces for better visibility, and the bright grey interior makes finding gear fast and effortless, even in low light. With over 200 designs, PAX bags are made to suit your role, needs, and environment. And thanks to their modular system, many bags work seamlessly together, no matter the setup.

PAX doesn’t chase trends. Their designs stay consistent, so once you know one, you know them all. And if your bag ever takes a beating? Their in-house repair team will bring it back to life.

PAX – built to perform, made to last.

Learn more at ⁠https://www.pax-bags.com/en/⁠

In this episode of the Pre-Hospital Care Podcast, we're joined by Dr Jo Mildenhall to explore a critical and often under-discussed issue in pre-hospital medicine: burnout.

Frontline ambulance staff experience some of the highest rates of sickness absence in the NHS, with stress, anxiety, and depression frequently cited as the cause. While much attention has traditionally focused on the impact of major traumatic incidents, Jo's research has consistently challenged this narrative, highlighting that the cumulative burden of daily hassles, operational pressures, organisational friction, resource constraints, moral distress, and relentless demand may be equally, if not more, damaging to psychological wellbeing.

Drawing on her latest work on the social psychological dynamics within ambulance service culture, Jo examines how group identity, workplace relationships, and collective experiences of adversity shape the way ambulance clinicians perceive, process, and respond to stress and trauma. Her research suggests that the cultures we work within profoundly influence our emotional responses, coping behaviours, and willingness to seek support. We unpack the informal coping mechanisms paramedics often turn to, including cognitive strategies, gallows humour, and peer support, and examine what it is about these strategies that they find particularly helpful.

With Jo's extensive experience in both clinical and educational settings, we reflect on how workplace culture, leadership, social identity, and peer relationships shape how paramedics manage stress, and what more can be done to protect psychological wellbeing on the front line. Ultimately, this episode asks an important question: if burnout is driven as much by the accumulation of everyday pressures as by extraordinary events, how do we build ambulance services that are not only operationally effective but also psychologically sustainable?

Please find Jo's latest research here: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272449530_Occupational_stress_paramedic_informal_coping_strategies_a_review_of_the_literature