Cambridge 14 (General Training) | Test 4 | Section 3

The Role of the Swiss Postbus

There isn’t an inhabited place in Switzerland that cannot bereached by some sort of public transport. Federal law and the Swiss Constitution stipulate that every village with a population greater than 40 is entitled to regular bus services. The frequency of these services is directly related to population density. Timetables are put together four years in advance, and seldom change. If a new route is to be introduced, the population of the area affected is invited to vote in a referendum.

inhabited (adjective)

/ɪnˈhæbɪtɪd/

An inhabited place or building has people living in it

e.g., Is the island inhabited?

constitution (noun) [countable]

/ˌkɑːn.stəˈtuː.ʃən/

the set of political principles by which a state or organization is governed, especially in relation to the rights of the people it governs

e.g., Britain has no written constitution.

population density (noun)

the number of people living in each unit of area (such as a square mile)

e.g., This part of the country has a high population density.

Cambridge 15 (General Training) | Test 4 | Section 3

Animals can tell right from wrong

Wolves live in tight-knit social groups that are regulated bystrict rules. Wolves also demonstrate fairness. During play, dominant wolves will appear to exchange roles with lower-ranking wolves. They pretend to be submissive and go so far as to allow biting by the lower-ranking wolves, provided it is not too hard. Prof Bekoff argues that without a moral code governing their actions, this kind of behavior would not be possible. Astonishingly, if an animal becomes aggressive, it will perform a “play bow” to ask forgiveness before play resumes.

tight-knit (adjective)

/ˌtaɪt ˈnɪt/

a tight-knit group of people are closely connected with each other

e.g., The company is controlled by a tightly-knit group of investors.

pretend (verb) [intransitive, transitive]

/prɪˈtend/

to behave as if something is true when you know that it is not,especially in order to deceive people or as a game

e.g., The children pretended (that) they were dinosaurs.

bite (verb) [intransitive, transitive]

/baɪt/

to use your teeth to cut into something or someone

e.g., Does your dog bite?

Cambridge 15 (General Training) | Test 1 | Section 3

The California Gold Rush of 1849

On January 24, 1848, James Wilson Marshall, a carpenter, found small flakes of gold in the American River near Coloma, California. At the time, Marshall was working to build a water-powered sawmill for businessman John Sutter. As it happens, just days after Marshall’s discovery, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed, ending the Mexican-American War and transferring California, with its mineral deposits, into the ownership of the United States. At the time, the population of the territory consisted of 6,500 Californios (people of Spanish or Mexican descent); 700 foreigners (primarily Americans); and 150,000 Native Americans.

carpenter (noun) [countable]

/ˈkɑːrpəntər/

someone whose job is making and repairing wooden objects

e.g., A master carpenter was in charge of teaching the apprentices.

as it happens (idiom)

used to introduce something that is true by chance

e.g., As it happens, I know his brother.

ownership (noun) [uncountable]

/ˈəʊnərʃɪp/

the fact that you own something

e.g., The company is under private ownership.

Cambridge 16 (General Training) | Test 4 | Section 3

History of Women’s Football in Britain

Women’s football in Britain has deeper roots than might beexpected. In one town in 18th-century Scotland, single women played an annual match against their married counterparts, though the motives behind the contest were not purely sporting. Some accounts say that the games were watched by a crowd of single men, who hoped to pick out a potential bride based on her footballing ability.

roots (noun) [plural]

/ruːts/

origins

e.g., Flamenco may have its roots in Arabic music.

annual (adjective)

/ˈæn.ju.əl/

happening once every year

e.g., The company charges an annual fee of $45.

bride (noun) [countable]

/braɪd/

a woman who is about to get married or has just got married

e.g., You may now kiss the bride.

Cambridge 16 (General Training) | Test 3 | Section 3

Feathers as Decoration in European History

Today, we do not generally associate feathers with the militaryin Europe, yet history shows that in fact feathers have played an intriguing role in European military clothing. The Bersaglieri of the Italian Army, for example, still wear a bunch of long black feathers in their hats hanging down to one side, while British fusiliers have a clipped feather plume whose color varies according to their regiment. The Royalists in the English Civil War adorned their headgear with ostrich feathers. “Historically, feathers were an incredibly expressive accessory for men,” observes Cambridge historian, Professor Ulinka Rublack. “Nobody has really looked at why this was the case. That’s a story that I want to tell.”

feather (noun) [countable]

/ˈfeðər/

one of the many soft light parts covering a bird’s body

e.g., Do you prefer a feather pillow or a foam pillow?

adorn (verb) [transitive]

/əˈdɔːrn/

to make something/somebody look more attractive by decorating it or them with something

e.g., The bride's hair was adorned with white flowers.

ostrich (noun) [countable]

/ˈɑːstrɪtʃ/

a verylarge African bird with a long neck and long legs, that cannot fly but can run very fast

e.g., The ostrich is the fastest animal on two legs.

Cambridge 16 (General Training) | Test 2 | Section 3

Jobs in Ancient Egypt

In order to be engaged in the higher professions in ancientEgypt, a person had to be literate and so first had to become a scribe. The apprenticeship for this job lasted many years and was tough and challenging. It principally involved memorizing hieroglyphic symbols and practicing handwritten lettering. Scribes noted the everyday activities in ancient Egypt and wrote about everything from grain stocks to tax records. Therefore, most of our information on this rich culture comes from their records. Most scribes were men from privileged backgrounds. The occupation of scribe was among the most sought-after in ancient Egypt. Craftspeople endeavored to get their sons into the school for scribes, but they were rarely successful.

profession (noun) [countable]

/prəˈfeʃn/

any type of work that needs special training or a particular skill, often one that is respected because it involves a high level of education

e.g., Most professions in the medical field require years of training.

literate (adjective)

/ˈlɪtərət/

able to read and write

e.g., The job requires you to be computer literate.

apprenticeship (noun) [countable, uncountable]

/əˈprentɪʃɪp/

a period of time working as an apprentice; a job as an apprentice

e.g., Apprenticeships were becoming more difficult to find.

notion (noun) [countable]

/ˈnoʊ.ʃən/

a belief or idea

He didn’t have a clear notion of what he had to do.

congested (adjective)

/kənˈdʒestɪd/

crowded; full of traffic

The roads to Bordeaux were heavily congested.

deliberately (adverb)

/dɪˈlɪbərətli/

intentionally

I'm sure he says these things deliberately to annoy me.

buzz (noun) [ C usually singular ] informal

/bʌz/

a feeling of excitement, energy, and pleasure that something gives you

e.g., I get a buzz out of public speaking.

hooked (adjective)

/hʊkt/

‌if you are hooked on something, you enjoy it very much and you want to do it as often as possible

e.g., Her friends talked her into playing golf, and now she's hooked.

obstacle (noun) [countable]

/ˈɑːb.stə.kəl/

a situation, an event, etc. thatmakes it difficult for you to do or achieve something

e.g., A lack of qualifications can be a major obstacle to finding a job.

decline (verb) [intransitive]

/dɪˈklaɪn/

to gradually become less, worse, or lower

e.g., The animal's numbers are declining rapidly.

ulterior motive

a secret reason

e.g., He’s just being nice. I don’t think he has any ulterior motives.

in excess of something

more than something

e.g., Many of the doctors here are working in excess of fifty hours a week.

prodigious (adjective)

/prəˈdɪdʒ.əs/

very large or powerful and causing surprise; impressive

e.g., Americans are the world’s most prodigious consumers.

Cambridge 19 (General Training) | Test 1 | Section 3

Emojis

As a form of global communication, emojis only began their growth in 2011. Four years later, it wasestimated that they were being used by over 90 per cent of the online population.In excess of six billion were being sent every day. Their prevalence in the culture was such that Oxford Dictionaries recently chose one as their word of the year. “Words of the Year” are those judged to be reflective of the “ethos, mood, or preoccupations of that particular year.” They’re very much of their time. And often, once time has passed, theyfade from people’s consciousness almost as quickly as they arose.

estimate (verb) [transitive] [often passive]

/ˈes.tə.meɪt/

to guess or calculate the cost, size, value, etc. of something

It was difficult to estimate how many trees had been destroyed.

in excess of something

more than something

e.g., Many of the doctors here are working in excess of fifty hours a week.

fade (verb) [intransitive]

/feɪd/

to gradually disappear

e.g., Hopes of reaching an agreement seem to be fading away.

Cambridge 19 | Test 4 | Passage 3

The Unselfish Gene

There has long been a general assumption that human beings are essentiallyselfish. We’re apparently ruthless, with strong impulses to compete against each other for resources and to accumulate power andpossessions. If we are kind to one another, it’s usually because we haveulterior motives. If we are good, it’s only because we have managed to control and transcend our innate selfishness and brutality.

selfish (adjective)

/ˈsel.fɪʃ/

Someone who is selfish only thinks of their own advantage

e.g., Don't be so selfish!

possession (noun) [countable]

/pəˈzeʃ.ən/

something that you own or that you are carrying with you at a particulartime

e.g., Please remember to take all your personal possessions with you when you leave the aircraft.

ulterior motive

a secret reason

e.g., He’s just being nice. I don’t think he has any ulterior motives.

Cambridge 19 | Test 4 | Passage 1

The impact of climate change on butterflies in Britain

According toconservationists, populations of around two thirds of butterflyspecies havedeclined in Britain over the past 40 years. If this trend continues, it might have unpredictable knock-on effects for other species in the ecosystem. Butterfly eggs develop into caterpillars and these insects, which are the second stage in a new butterfly’s lifecycle, consume vast quantities of plant material, and in turn act as prey for birds as well as bats and other small mammals. Only by arming themselves with an understanding of why butterfly numbers are down can conservationists hope to halt or reserve the decline.

conservationist (noun) [countable]

/ˌkɑːnsərˈveɪʃənɪst/

someone who works to protect the environment from the damaging effects of human activity

e.g., Conservationists are fighting to save the tiger.

species (noun) [countable]

/ˈspiːʃiːz/

/ˈspiː.siːz/

a set of animals or plants in which the members have similar characteristics to each other and can breed with each other

e.g., Mountain gorillas are an endangered species.

decline (verb) [intransitive]

/dɪˈklaɪn/

to gradually become less, worse, or lower

e.g., The animal's numbers are declining rapidly.