In this episode, we discuss one of the more tragic episodes from the Gallic sack of Rome.

We Who Are About to Die…

The Romans who have remained in the city take up their defensive positions on the Capitol. The old patricians did not join them. Instead, their retired to their houses. Wearing their old robes of state, they settled down in the middle of their houses on ivory chairs to await the end.

Livy reports that some of his accounts indicate that the pontifex maximus (chief priest) led the ex-magistrates in a vow, in which they were devoting themselves to death for the sake of the city and its citizens.

The Gauls found their blood had cooled; after all, they had not had to fight the Romans to seize control of the city. They had just wandered in. They could see that the Capitol had been fortified, so they kept an eye on that area. However, it was time to go SHOPPING! All these abandoned streets and houses – it was theirs for the taking.

After some pillaging and plundering, the Gauls touched base again in the Forum. The plebeian houses in the area were locked up – they weren’t taking any chances whilst they were out of town. But the houses of the elite were mysteriously open.

As the Gauls entered the patrician dwellings, a shocking sight met their eyes. The old ex-magistrates, sitting as still as statues, dressed in their robes of state, just waiting for them. Not quite believing their eyes, one of the Gauls reached out to touch the beard of one of the patricians. How rude! The patrician clocked him in the head with an ivory mace. The Gauls were not going to show restraint now. The patricians were slain, the houses of the Roman citizens looted, and finally, the city was set on fire.

But not the whole city – these Gauls weren’t FOOLS! They wanted to keep a bargaining chip in their back pockets. Maybe these pesky Romans on the citadel might surrender to save their homes?

The Romans in question were in their own kind of hell as they sat on the Capitol and had to watch the destruction. Fortune had turned her back on them.

Did this mean that the Romans were going to give up? It most certainly did NOT! When the Gauls finally assaulted the Capitol, the Romans were ready for them. They managed to hold the line. If the Gauls wanted to seize all of Rome, they were going to have to settle in for a siege.

As the Gauls made themselves comfortable and set about plundering the countryside, over in Ardea, the exiled Camillus heard of the attack on Rome. What could he do? Could he possibly whip up an inspirational speech and persuade the Ardeates to fight the Gallic invaders? You betcha!

Things to Look Out For:

·        Dazzling rhetoric

·        Far too much bloodshed

·        Silent, manly tears from the Romans on the Capitol

·        Ye olde time Roman racism

·        The Gauls putting on a SHOW of destruction for the Romans

For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/

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Your Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire

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Marcus Furius Camillus is an ancient Roman that it is hard to ignore, especially in the early days of the 4th century BCE. He has been regularly popping up in our episodes from the era, so we thought it would be wonderful to invite on a special guest to discuss his whole life in one handy biographic episode.

Who is Marc Hyden?

Marc Hyden is the Director of State Government Affairs at a Washington DC-based think tank, as well as being a weekly columnist for the Newnan Times-Herald, Albany Herald, and Rome News-Tribune. Marc graduated from Georgia State University with a degree in philosophy. 

Marc has authored many, many books on Ancient Rome. His most recent work is Emperor Titus: The Right Hand of Vespasian (McFarland, 2025), and we will be talking with him about that in a future episode. He has also authored Gaius Marius: The Rise and Fall of Rome’s Saviour (Pen & Sword, 2017), Romulus: The Legend of Rome's Founding Father (Pen & Sword, 2020), but our focus today is going to be on Marcus Furius Camillus: The Life of Rome’s Second Founder (Pen & Sword, 2023).

Things to Listen Out For:

·        Camillus’ controversies

·        Camillus’ rise to fame

·        The many virtues of Camillus

·        The legacy of this Roman hero

We are sure you will love hearing Marc talk about Camillus, the man who served as a role model for later Roman luminaries like Julius Caesar and Augustus.

If you would like to hear more, we have a stack of episodes in our back catalogue that feature Camillus. 

Sound Credits

Our music is by Bettina Joy de Guzman

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Your Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire

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We rejoin the Romans and the Gauls in 390 BCE at the place where the Tiber river intersects with the Alia river. Turns out that when a bunch of Fabians upset the Gauls, those Gauls decide to march south towards Rome… How many Gauls and how many Romans met at the rivers’ edge? Well, the numbers are probably unreliable but the Romans are pretty sure they are outnumbered.

There seems to be a few issues at this moment including the Roman failure to build a proper camp and - even worse - failure to take the auspices. Is this some foreshadowing from our friend Livy?

Stay tuned for a discussion of the slim layout of the Roman forces. Brennus, the putative leader of the Gauls, seems to be uncertain that there may be some secret tactic or force that he hasn’t been able to account for. There’s also the problem of which bank of the river the battle takes place on which may influence where Roman forces end up. 

Will the Romans take the day or will they flail in the face of the Gallic strength? Are there some tactics involved that scholars can discern from the literary accounts that aren’t immediately obvious?

When the day goes against Rome, the retreat seems to be chaotic. Some of the Romans retreat to Rome, which makes sense, and some retreat to Veii. This creates a host of uncertainty for the Romans who survive particularly those who head back to Rome and don’t find their comrades there. The assumption of Roman losses is significant.

The Gauls meanwhile continue to suspect that there is a surprise attack from the Romans coming, but after some time they decide it’s worth marching on Rome just to see what they can see.  

• Gauls getting ‘organised’ after Alia
• The priestesses of Vesta get involved
• General Akbar and the Gauls coming together
• The role of the citadel on the Capitoline Hill
• The Gauls confused about Rome - the city?
• How does the levy of the Roman army work in this moment?
• The security of the sacred objects of Rome
• The Vestal Virgins on the move!
• What happens to the eldest noble Romans now the Gauls are at the gates
• Lucius Albinus - ’the noble Plebeian’?

For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/

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Your Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire

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We’re about to embark on a stunning period of Rome’s history in the middle Republic. Strap yourself in, this one is going to a take more a couple of episodes. We are, of course, dealing with the years that were 391/390 BCE. We begin with some of the important details that emerge for the latter part of 391 BCE which will have flow on effects for 390 BCE, which is the big ticket year that we’ll be navigating in this episode.

The title may have given a little away, but the Gauls are in Italy. North Italy specifically, but they are going to be travelling south and pretty soon they arrive on the doorstep of Clusium.

The Etruscan people of the city of Clusium seek support from the Romans. Unusual, yes, good for storytelling, also yes. Clusium is deep in Etruscan territory and yet it seems the Romans are willing to send a delegation to see what the Gaulish fuss is all about. The delegation is made up solely of Fabians, who are apparently meant to be neutral, but that aspect of the situation falls away pretty quickly when one of them kills a leader of the Gauls...

Rome (and particularly the Fabians) have really upset the Gauls so much so, that the Gauls make a bee-line for Rome moving swiftly through Etruscan territory to arrive at the point where the Tiber meets the Alia, just north of Rome. The speed of the Gallic movement catches the Romans off-guard and that's just the beginning of their woes.

• Who is King Brennus?
• “All things belong to the brave”
• Quintus Fabius gets right out of line
• The Gauls send envoys to Rome
• Diodorus Siculus - more accurate than Livy?
• Did Dionysius of Syracuse hire the Gauls as mercenaries?
• The search for somewhere cool?

For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/

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Your Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire

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We are thrilled to sit down with Dr Francesca Fulminante to chat all about the development of settlements in central Italy from the Bronze Age to the Archaic Period of Rome. Dr Fulminante shares insights from her recent monograph: The Rise of Early Rome - Transportation Networks and Domination in Central Italy, 1050-500 BCE  (2023) (Cambridge University Press).

This is a period where archaeological investigation reigns supreme requiring researchers to get into the nitty gritty layers of settlement patterns and trading networks. We’re thrilled to learn from Dr Fulminante as her research involves the investigation of complex societies in central Italy during the Bronze Age, looking at things like social stratification, settlement organisation, and craft community practices. Dr Fulminate is a Senior Research Fellow in the Department of Anthropology and Archaeology at the University of Bristol, and is an Associate Professor at University Roma Tre. Her work also involves offering continuing education training at the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge.

Coming to grips with the early evidence for Rome and central Italy involves understanding some of the overlapping terminology used by archaeologists and historians, who are coming to the evidence from different perspectives. Terms like the Bronze Age and Iron Age come to us from archaeology and anthropology while specific periods like the Archaic period and Early Roman Republic are much more society specific and tend to come from historians. This overlap can create a little bit of confusion, so here’s a rough breakdown (including some of the overlapping terms):

• The Early Bronze Age: 2300-1700 BCE
• The Middle Bronze Age: 1700-1350 BCE
• The Recent Bronze Age: 1350-1150 BCE
• The Final Bronze Age: 1150-950 BCE
• Iron Age: c. 1200- c. 500 BCE
• Villanovan Culture: c. 900-700 BCE (Etruscan)
• The Orientalising Period: c. 700-500 BCE (Etruscan)
• The Archaic Period: 800-500 BCE (Rome)
• The Early Republic: 509-400 BCE (Rome)

Dr Fulminante takes us through the early settlements of the Bronze Age and the transition to permanent structures in stone rather than perishable materials that occurs in from the 8th century BCE onwards. What does the evidence suggest for the development of ancient cities and the interconnections between them? Tune in to find out!

Things to listen out for:

• V. Gordon Childe’s ten defining features for an ancient city
• Connectivity in central Italy as an essential feature of the growth of cities
• Burial under the houses
• The movement of cities from east to west versus the network development theory
• How transportation networks develop from a physical perspective
• How transportation networks are are influenced by political organisation and relationships
• The way roads and rivers work together to create a network
• The connections between Latium vetus (old Latium) and Etruria (north of the Tiber)
• Cooperative networks versus centralised hierarchical networks

For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/

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391 BCE is jam-packed with action, but the event that stands out is the arrival of the Gauls in centre stage. It’s time to surf the Celtic Wave!

Revenge is Sweet… and Easy

The year began well for the Romans as they recovered from the pestilence that had caused such havoc the year before. Finally, they were strong enough to take down the Sappinates and the Volsinii who had tried to take advantage of their illness. Scoundrels! And it wasn’t hard at all – these guys barely put up a fight!

Portent for a Pleb

In spite of their success on the battlefield, there were signs of trouble ahead. A humble plebeian, Marcus Caedicius, heard a god speak to him in the dead of the night whilst he was on the Nova Via. The god (Aius Locutius, the speaking voice) told him that the Gauls were coming and that he had to let the magistrates know right away! The magistrates showed zero interest in anything this lowly pleb had to say. Um, why was this lowly man even talking to them? Didn’t he know they were patricians? And the Gauls? They were so far away, the Romans had barely even heard of them! Ridiculous. 

Ciao, Camillus!

Arrogance continued to be a problem for the Romans. Having ignored a message from the GODS, they now turned on the best man who ever lived, Camillus. The last thing Camillus needed was drama as his young son had just passed away. However, the tribune of the plebs, Lucius Apuleius, cared not. He was coming after Camillus over the way he had handled the spoils captured from Veii. Rather than wait around to be convicted, Camillus went into exile – but not before asking the gods to make the Romans rue the day they had driven him away! Pretty please, gods of Rome, prove his innocence and put them in a situation which only Camillus could fix. Then they’d have to come back on their knees!

Getting Close to Clusium

Envoys from the Etruscan city of Clusium now arrived in Rome, seeking help against some troublesome Gauls who had arrived in their neighbourhood. This seems like an odd turn of events for so many reasons. The Romans did not have a strong relationship with Clusium. This was an Etruscan city quite some distance to the north. Perhaps they had been inspired by Rome’s performance against Volsinii? Although the exact details are questionable, there is no doubt that Gallic tribes had migrated into northern Italy. There are many stories associated with this Celtic wave, including some family intrigue, the lure of Etruscan fruits, wine – oh, and land! We wish we had more accounts from the Gauls/ Celts themselves, but we have to let the archaeology speak for them. The evidence confirms Celtic migration over the Alps and into northern Italy from the 5th century BCE and Livy seems to have been inspired by Herodotus in his own account of the varied Celtic peoples who crossed the Alps. Livy believes that it was the Senones tribe who rocked up at Clusium in the early 4th century, one the last to make the move. Although there is little archaeological evidence to suggest contact between these groups, let’s not interrupt Livy’s narrative. The people of Clusium were freaked out by these strangers and decided to turn to Rome. Surely the Romans would remember that they had not helped Veii out during the recent war? That must count for something? The Romans were not so sure. They decided to send the three sons of Marcus Fabius Ambustus as ambassadors to have a wee chat with the Gauls. They would issue a stern warning and hope that the new arrivals went on their merry way. No one wants a war, guys! In fact, the Romans would love to make new friends. How did the Senones respond? You’ll have to tune in for our epic multi-episode coverage of 390 BCE! 

For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/

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In this special episode, we tackle the second half of the 1963 epic, Cleopatra.

In the first part of this double-header, we tried to keep our focus on Cleopatra and Caesar and the initial challenges faced by #TeamCleo. However, today we get to delve into the second half of the movie when Cleopatra and Antony get it on. This means we finally get to discuss ‘Le Scandale’, aka the Taylor-Burton affair that developed on the set once these two clapped eyes on each other. Their passion would result in two broken hearts, a publicity sensation and not one, but TWO, marriages (and divorces).

Cleopatra (1963) is a classic example of how the context of a film can shape how the history was received. It’s hard not to see some weird parallels between Taylor & Burton and Cleopatra & Antony. We need to work on some couple names before this gets too confusing. Cleotony? Antra? Tayton? Burtay? We’ll keep workshopping these ideas.  

Things to listen out for:

·      Unexpected feline births

·      The casting couch makes an unwelcome appearance

·      Studio coups

·      Editing wars

·      Broken hearts (#JusticeforSybil&Eddie)

·      Odd similarities with the production of Spartacus

·      MORE production problems than you can every imagine!

One thing we have concluded after three hours of discussion: don’t start shooting a movie without a finished script.

If you enjoyed this discussion, you might be interested in checking out The Plot Thickens, who are doing a whole season on Cleopatra (1963).

Our Sources

Drs G and Dr Rad discuss ancient sources such as Florus, Cicero, Appian, and of course, Plutarch’s Life of Antony.

Brodsky, Jack, and Nathan Weiss. The Cleopatra Papers : A Private Correspondence. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1963.

Geist, Kenneth L. Pictures Will Talk : The Life and Films of Joseph L. Mankiewicz. New York: Scribner, 1978. 

Humphries, Patrick. Cleopatra and the Undoing of Hollywood : How One Film Almost Sunk the Studios. Cheltenham: The History Press Ltd., 2023.

Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones, and Daniel Ogden. “CELLULOID CLEOPATRAS or DID THE GREEKS EVER GET TO EGYPT?” In The Hellenistic World, 275-. United Kingdom: The Classical Press of Wales, 2002.

Royster, F. Becoming Cleopatra : The Shifting Image of an Icon. 1st ed. 2003. New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, 2003. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-07417-1.

Southern, P. Cleopatra. Gloucestershire: Tempus, 2007.

Taraborrelli, J. Randy. Elizabeth. London: Pan Macmillan, 2006.

Wanger, Wanger, and Joe Hyams. My Life with Cleopatra: The Making of a Hollywood Classic. New York: Vintage, 1963.

Wyke, Maria. Projecting the Past : Ancient Rome, Cinema, and History. New York: Routledge, 1997.

Sound Credits

Our music is by the wonderful Bettina Joy de Guzman.

For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/

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Your Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire

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392 BCE, the year that went down in history for “a campaign in no way memorable”. Ah, that Livy, he paints quite a picture, doesn’t he?

All About the Consuls

The campaign in question involved our consuls for the year. Yep, consuls! The plebeians were still in a blissful mood after receiving some of the land from Veii in the previous year and so they didn’t fight for military tribunes.

The consuls took care of a few domestic matters, such as holding the Great Games promised by Camillus during the siege against Veii and dedicating the temple to Juno (another of Camillus’ promises).

Once the gods had been satisfied, the Romans were off to fight the Aequians at Mount Algidus in the titular “campaign in no way memorable.” Come on Aequians, put up a proper fight! The decisive victory (and possible capture of the city of Liphoecua) earned the consul Valerius a triumph as he slaughtered so many of the fleeing enemy. His colleague, Manlius, was given the lesser honour of an ovation. Guess he didn’t kill as many men who were running away in terror! You can’t reward that kind of behaviour in Ancient Rome.

Kicking the Romans when they were really down

War found the Romans again in 392, this time with the Etruscan people of Volsinii and the Sappinates (which we presume was near Volsinii). The Romans could not respond with their typical vigour as they were hit by a horrific plague. Famine and pestilence were rampant in their part of the world, thanks to drought and a heatwave. These are the same environmental crises and disease mentioned by Dionysius of Halicarnassus for the previous year, which goes to show how the dating for this period is a tad confused.

With the Romans too ill to fight, they send angry messages to their new enemies that they will get their revenge… just as soon as they can stop vomiting.

Good Censors are like Waffles

No one was immune from the pestilence. Censors had been elected in 393 BCE, but now one of those elected, Gaius Julius, died in office and was replaced with Marcus Cornelius. Spoiler alert, but we are only a couple of years away from the Gallic sack of Rome. This happened in the same lustrum as events such as the death of Gaius Julius. Livy asserts that the way he was replaced caused issues with the gods, and that the Romans would ensure the partner of deceased stepped down from office and two brand new colleagues would be placed in office in the future. This may not be accurate, but it certainly shows that the Romans were committed to the idea of collegiality.

The Scourge of the Plague

When the consuls also fell ill, they decided the Romans needed some fresh auspices. It was time for an interregnum! The consuls stepped down from office, and power was shared amongst the interreges until military tribunes with consular power were elected.

We know what you’re thinking – why interreges? This was a position created to deal with the transfer of powers between kings. It’s interesting that the Romans continue to use this position long into the Republic. The last time we saw interreges was only a few years earlier in 396 BCE.  

We do mention a couple of Latin terms in this episode, so here is your handy glossary in case you need it!

·      The pomerium – the sacred boundary of the city. This was religious in nature. The pomerium set the bounds within which the auspices could be taken.

·      Reference to the lustrum – a lustratio was a purification ceremony. The lustrum condere was conducted at the end of a census by one of the censors.

For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/

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Cleopatra was released in 1963 and has gone on to herald the end of the golden age of the historical epic in Hollywood. Known as one of the most expensive films to ever be made, its troubled production and the on screen connection between Taylor and Burton have both cemented its place in cinematic history.

We have a look at some of the issues that led to production delays and there were a lot! From tricky weather conditions, Taylor’s health troubles, to issues with the script, there wasn’t an issue that this film didn’t face in the journey to release. Dr Rad delves into the details of the factors that influenced the production including:

• the monetary problems
• the challenges into Twentieth Century Fox in this period
• the increasing pressure to write and shoot for Mankiewicz
• and Taylor’s public aura in the early 1960s

The historical pedigree of Cleopatra is based on a few different sources including credit given to Plutarch, Appian, and Suetonius! The impetus for the film was also based on the book published in 1957, The Life and Times of Cleopatra by Carlo Maria Franzero. There’s a depth of references throughout the film that have support in the ancient sources. Dr G considers:

• the representation of Ptolemy and his advisors
• The divided representation of Cleopatra as a savvy politician and a seductress
• The burning of the library of Alexandria
• The history of where Alexander the Great’s body ends up after death

• The life and significance of Caesarion
• The importance of Mankiewicz in bringing this project to life
• Shifting to French hours
• What’s up with Mithridates?
• Caesar’s winding journey through the Mediterranean
• Our historical sources for Cleopatra’s life
• Julius Caesar in Egypt versus Cleopatra in Rome
• Cleopatra’s complex Mediterranean identity
• The powerful representation of motherhood
• Elizabeth Taylor’s requirements for this film

Keen to delve more into Cleopatra? Check out our conversation with Yentl Love about the reception of Cleopatra over time.

• Brodsky, Jack; Weiss, Nathan (1963). The Cleopatra Papers: A Private Correspondence (Simon and Schuster)
• Cooney, Kara (2018). When Women Ruled the World: Six Queens of Egypt (National Geographic Society)
• Lucan De Bello Civili
• Wagner, Walter and Hyams, Joe (2013). My Life with Cleopatra: The Making of a Hollywood Classic (Knopf Doubleday)

For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/

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Rex: The Seven Kings of Rome

Your Cheeky Guide to the Roman Empire

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We’re still in the year 394 BCE and we’ve seen Camillus has had a run in with the Falsican Schoolmaster. In this episode we move on further into the action of 394 BCE and look at 393 BCE as well. Is Camillus learning how to keep a low profile? He is praised from his success over the Faliscans and he doesn’t rush for a triumph this time. But the challenge remains, that Camillus’ forgotten vow to Apollo might be about to bite him on the bottom.

Rome is pretty intent on fulfilling Camillus’ forgotten vow to Apollo and this means a boat trip is in order. But sailing to Greece is not for the faint hearted, especially when you have such precious cargo as a golden bowl in tow. Tune in for adventures on the high sea!

The Aequians, a thorn in Rome’s side? Yes indeed. Do our sources agree? Of course not. It’s Diodorus Siculus against Livy, duking it out with Siculus having just a mention of trouble, while Livy comes packing details. We take you through the chaotic details. The conflict centres in the town of Verrugo but watch out for mention of Tusculum as well.

It’s time for the Roman census! We also see a return of the consulship in 393 BCE! The tussle about moving some of Rome’s population permanently to Veii is back on the agenda. There’s a faction in favour of a move to Veii and a faction against. Our sources seem to position this as a patrician/plebeian divide, but it might be more confusing or complicated than that.

Somehow, the Aequian forces, that were absolutely devastated in 394 BCE are BACK baby but their appearance seems only a flash in the pan compared to Rome’s troubles at home. There’s tribunes of the plebs to worry about, factional infighting over what to do about Veii, and some trials to contend with as well. It’s an exhausting time to be in Roman politics! Enter scene right: Camillus… How important was the tribune of the plebs right of veto? The question is raised in Livy’s narrative.

• Special legates - fancy!
• Pirates on the Mediterranean Sea!
• A fine of 10, 000 asses!
• What’s going on the tribune of the plebs and the veto?
• A break from the pattern of the gens? Shock and horror
• Livy getting confused?
• 7 iugera to be allocated to every Roman and provision to procreate
• Pestilence in Rome and surrounds
• A Roman beach getaway

For our full show notes and edited transcripts, head on over to https://partialhistorians.com/

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