The History of Egypt Podcast

In 2025 I did an interview with the AskHistorians podcast, a reddit-based show where specialists discuss history and major questions about their fields.

In this interview, we discuss the history of Egyptology, stories from ancient Egypt, the situation of the field today, and why Hollywood can't seem to make any stories about Egypt that don't involve Cleopatra. 

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Siptah, Tausret, Setnakht. Between 1205--1202 BCE, the royal house of Ramesses II crumbled into illegitimacy. After Siptah, the queen Tausret declared herself pharaoh. Her reign leaves tantalising traces. But shortly after, a man named Set-Nakht ("Seth is Victorious") seized the throne and inaugurated the 20th Dynasty. Subsequently, he and his successors declared the late 19th Dynasty a period of "empty years," lacking legitimacy, with no true ruler.

What went wrong?

Logo image: The "charioteer ostracon," depicting a female ruler charging against a male, both firing arrows (Daressy 1909).

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Siptah & Chancellor Bay. The last years of Dynasty 19 are murky, with hints of disorder and violence. At the centre of affairs, the courtier Bay directed policy and controlled access to King Siptah. Pharaoh himself was sickly, possibly disabled. The power-shift culminated in a rather dramatic break...

Music: Keith Zizza and Luke Chaos.

Logo image: Siptah, from his tomb KV47 (Davis 1908).

Bibliography

Bierbrier, M. (2011). Bye-Bye Bay. In M. Collier & S. Snape (Eds.), Ramesside studies in honour of K. A. Kitchen (pp. 19–21). Rutherford.

Černý, J. (1966). A note on the chancellor Bay. Zeitschrift Für Ägyptische Sprache Und Altertumskunde, 93, 35--39.

Cooney, K. M. (2022). The New Kingdom of Egypt Under the Ramesside Dynasty. In D. T. Potts, N. Moeller, & K. Radner (Eds.), The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East, Volume III: From the Hyksos to the Late Second Millennium BC (pp. 251--366). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190687601.003.0027

Dodson, A. (2011). Fade to grey: The chancellor Bay, Éminence Grise of the late Nineteenth Dynasty. In M. Collier & S. Snape (Eds.), Ramesside Studies in Honour of K. A. Kitchen (pp. 145--158). Rutherford.

Dodson, A. (2016). Poisoned Legacy: The Decline and Fall of the Nineteenth Egyptian Dynasty (Revised edn). American University in Cairo Press.

Dodson, A. (2025). Siptah’s leg and other stories. In A. F. Morris & H. Vogel (Eds.), Disability in ancient Egypt and Egyptology: All our yesterdays (pp. 214--220). https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003440369-17

Drenkhahn, R. (1980). Die Elephantine-Stele des Sethnacht und ihr historischer Hintergrund. Harrassowitz.

Galassi, F. M., Habicht, M. E., & Rühli, F. J. (2017). Poliomyelitis in ancient Egypt? Neurological Sciences, 38, 375. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10072-016-2720-9

Goedicke, H. (1979). “Irsu, The Kharu” in Papyrus Harris. Wiener Zeitschrift Für Die Kunde Des Morgenlandes, 71, 1--17. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23858901

Grandet, P. (2000). L’execution du chancelier Bay: O.IFAO 1864. Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale, 100, 339--345. https://www.ifao.egnet.net/bifao/100/14/

Habicht, M. E., Varotto, E., Galassi, F. M., & Pate, F. D. (2022). The elusive disease of pharaoh Siptah (19th dynasty, ca. 1200 BC): Old problems and future perspectives. Neurological Sciences, 43, 747–748. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10072-021-05649-6

Johnson, K. (2012). Transition and Legitimation in Egypt’s Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties: A Study of the Reigns of Siptah, Tausret, and Sethnakht [Unpublished PhD. Thesis, University of Memphis]. https://digitalcommons.memphis.edu/etd/498

Johnson, K. L., & Brand, P. (2013). Prince Seti-Merenptah, Chancellor Bay, and the Bark Shrine of Seti II at Karnak. Journal of Egyptian History, 6, 19--45. https://doi.org/10.1163/18741665-12340001

Kahn, D. (2010). Who is meddling in Egypt’s affairs? The identity of the Asiatics in the Elephantine Stele of Sethnakhte and the historicity of the Medinet Habu Asiatic war reliefs. Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections, 2(1), 14--23. http://jaei.library.arizona.edu

Leprohon, R. J. (2013). The Great Name: Ancient Egyptian Royal Titulary. Society of Biblical Literature.

Lesko, L. H. (1966). A little more evidence for the end of the Nineteenth Dynasty. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, 5, 29–32. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40000169

Safronov, A. (2013). New titles of the Great Chancellor Bay. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 99, 290--295. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24644942

Schneider, T. (2003). Siptah und Beja: Neubeurteilung einer historischen Konstellation. Zeitschrift Für Ägyptische Sprache Und Altertumskunde, 130, 134--146.

Servajean, F. (2014). Mérenptah et la fin de la XIXe dynastie. Pygmalion.

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Tausret, Siptah, Bay, and the case of Paneb. By 1210 BCE, the southern rebellion was dying down, but trouble was far from over. The courtier Bay appears on the scene, first as an agent of Sety II, then as a "kingmaker" in his own right. Tausret increases her power, becoming a regent figure (like Hatshepsut). The young ruler Siptah, physically enfeebled and of uncertain heritage, provides a veil of legitimacy for a new triumvirate.

Meanwhile, in Deir el-Medina, the foremen/chiefs Hay and Paneb deal with serious allegations... [WARNING: Starting at 23:01, episode contains content that may not be suitable for all listeners]

Logo image: Winged Ma'at in KV47, tomb of Siptah, by E. Harold Jones 1910 (MMA).

Bibliography

Aldred, C. (1963a). The Parentage of King Siptaḥ. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 49, 41–48. https://doi.org/10.2307/3855698

Aldred, C. (1963b). Valley Tomb No. 56 at Thebes. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 49, 176–178. https://doi.org/10.2307/3855714

Altenmüller, H. (1989). Untersuchungen zum Grab des Bai (KV13) im Tal der Könige von Theben. Göttinger Miszellen, 107, 43--54.

Bartos, F. (2023). The Official Titles wb3 nswt ‘royal wb3’ and wdpw nswt ‘royal wdpw’ and the Function of their Holders in the New Kingdom.

Beckerath, J. von. (1962). Queen Twosre as guardian of Siptaḥ. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 48, 70--74.

Bierbrier, M. L. (2000). Paneb Rehabilitated? In R. J. Demarée & A. Egberts (Eds.), Deir el-Medina in the Third Millennium AD: A Tribute to Jac. J. Janssen (pp. 51--54).

Černý, J. (1966). A note on the chancellor Bay. Zeitschrift Für Ägyptische Sprache Und Altertumskunde, 93, 35--39.

Cooney, K. M. (2022). The New Kingdom of Egypt Under the Ramesside Dynasty. In D. T. Potts, N. Moeller, & K. Radner (Eds.), The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East, Volume III: From the Hyksos to the Late Second Millennium BC (pp. 251--366). https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190687601.003.0027

Davies, B. G. (1997). Egyptian Historical Inscriptions of the Nineteenth Dynasty.

Davis, T. M. (1908). The Tomb of Siphtah: The Monkey Tomb and the Gold Tomb. https://ia904605.us.archive.org/22/items/tombofsiphtahmon04davi/tombofsiphtahmon04davi.pdf

Dodson, A. (2011). Fade to grey: The chancellor Bay, Éminence Grise of the late Nineteenth Dynasty. In M. Collier & S. Snape (Eds.), Ramesside Studies in Honour of K. A. Kitchen (pp. 145--158).

Dodson, A. (2016). Poisoned Legacy: The Decline and Fall of the Nineteenth Egyptian Dynasty (Revised edn).

Dodson, A. (2025). Siptah’s leg and other stories. In A. F. Morris & H. Vogel (Eds.), Disability in ancient Egypt and Egyptology: All our yesterdays (pp. 214--220). https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003440369-17

Gardiner, A. (1958). Only One King Siptaḥ and Twosre Not His Wife. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 44, 12–22. https://doi.org/10.2307/3855059

Gardiner, A. H. (1912). The Stele of Bilgai. Zeitschrift Für Ägyptische Sprache Und Altertumskunde, 50, 49--57.

Johnson, K. (2012). Transition and Legitimation in Egypt’s Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties: A Study of the Reigns of Siptah, Tausret, and Sethnakht [Unpublished PhD. Thesis, University of Memphis]. https://digitalcommons.memphis.edu/etd/498

Johnson, K. L., & Brand, P. (2013). Prince Seti-Merenptah, Chancellor Bay, and the Bark Shrine of Seti II at Karnak. Journal

Safronov, A. (2013). New titles of the Great Chancellor Bay. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 99, 290--295. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24644942

Schneider, T. (2003). Siptah und Beja: Neubeurteilung einer historischen Konstellation. Zeitschrift Für Ägyptische Sprache Und

Servajean, F. (2014). Mérenptah et la fin de la XIXe dynastie.

Wilkinson, R. H. (Ed.). (2012). Tausret: Forgotten Queen and Pharaoh of Egypt.

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Between 1215 and 1211 BCE, Egypt was divided. A rebellion in the south, launched by Amen-messe "Born of Amun" disrupted the succession of Sety II, son of Merneptah. Records from this shadowy period hint at violence and corruption in Waset/Luxor, as the usurper took control and established a new regime. The impact of this conflict would have long-lasting ramifications for the 19th Dynasty...

Music: Luke Chaos.

Logo: An unnamed statue head from Karnak, probably depicting Sety II or Amenmesse (Metropolitan Museum of Art, public domain).

Was Amenmesse the Viceroy Messuy?

Below are scenes from Amada in Nubia, where Messuy carved scenes of himself before royal cartouches. Prof. Aidan Dodson suggests that the Viceroy has cobra/uraei on his forehead, though other scholars suggest this is mere weathering. What do you think?

Bibliography

Brand, P. J. (2009). Usurped Cartouches of Merenptah at Karnak and Luxor. In P. J. Brand & L. Cooper (Eds.), Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J. Murnane (pp. 29–48). Brill. http://history.memphis.edu/murnane/Brand.pdf

Caminos, R. A. (1974). The new-kingdom temples of Buhen. Egypt Exploration Society.

Černý, J. (1929). Papyrus Salt 124 (Brit. Mus. 10055). The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 15(3/4), 243–258. https://doi.org/10.2307/3854120

Cooney, K. M. (2022). The New Kingdom of Egypt Under the Ramesside Dynasty. In D. T. Potts, N. Moeller, & K. Radner (Eds.), The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East, Volume III: From the Hyksos to the Late Second Millennium BC (pp. 251--366). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190687601.003.0027

Dodson, A. (2016). Poisoned Legacy: The Decline and Fall of the Nineteenth Egyptian Dynasty (Revised edn). American University in Cairo Press.

Hopper, R. W. (2010). The Monuments of Amenmesse and Seti II: A Historical Inquiry [Unpublished PhD. Thesis]. The University of Memphis.

Iskander, S. (2002). The Reign of Merneptah [Unpublished PhD. Thesis]. New York University.

Kitchen, K. A. (1987). The Titularies of the Ramesside Kings as Expression of their Ideal Kingship. Annales Du Service Des Antiquités de l’Égypte, 71, 131--141. https://archive.org/details/ASAE-71-1987

Krauss, R. (1976). Untersuchungen zu König Amenmesse (1. Teil). Studien Zur Altägyptischen Kultur, 4, 161--199. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25150008

Krauss, R. (1977). Untersuchungen zu König Amenmesse (2. Teil). Studien Zur Altägyptischen Kultur, 5, 131--174. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44324535

Krauss, R. (1997). Untersuchungen zu König Amenmesse: Nachträge. Studien Zur Altägyptischen Kultur, 24, 161--184. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25152736

Krauss, R. (2000). Moïse le pharaon (N. Baum, Trans.). Editions du Rocher.

Lefébure, E. (1886). Les hypogées royaux de Thèbes (Band 1): Le tombeau de Séti Ier. Libraire de la Societe Asiatique. http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/lefebure1886bd1

Leprohon, R. J. (2013). The Great Name: Ancient Egyptian Royal Titulary. Society of Biblical Literature.

Schneider, T. (2011). Conjectures About Amenmesse: Historical, Biographical, Chronological. In M. Collier & S. Snape (Eds.), Ramesside Studies in Honour of K. A. Kitchen (pp. 445--451). Rutherford. https://www.academia.edu/6374977/Conjectures_about_Amenmesse_Historical_Biographical_Chronological_in_Ramesside_Studies_Festschrift_Kenneth_A_Kitchen_Bolton_Rutherford_Press_2011_445_451

Servajean, F. (2014). Mérenptah et la fin de la XIXe dynastie. Pygmalion.

Sourouzian, H. (2019). Catalogue de la statuaire royale de la XIXe dynastie. Institut français d’archéologie orientale. https://www.ifao.egnet.net/publications/catalogue/9782724707571/

Yurco, F. J. (1979). Amenmesse: Six statues at Karnak. Metropolitan Museum Journal, 14, 15--31. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/1512735.pdf

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From 1217 to 1221 CE, Egypt faced an invasion in the Delta. A bizarre tale of D-Day-esque beach landings, improvised nun-chucks, and the vengeance of Hapi ensued. Today's guest Dr. Thomas Smith explains the story and introduces his new book The Fifth Crusade: A History of the Epic Campaign to Conquer Egypt.

The Fifth Crusade (2026) available from Yale University Press and all good retailers.

Dr. Thomas Smith's website: https://thomaswsmith.co.uk/

Music by Luke Chaos.

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Merneptah's Nubian War, the Book of Caverns, and his Legacy. The later years of Merneptah's reign were eventful. Just as the Libu war wound down, another conflict started in Nubia. Shortly after, there may have been some disruptions or reshuffling in the government. We also get a new religious text known as the "Book of Caverns." Finally, we follow Merneptah's passing and his legacy.

Video lecture about Merneptah's Memphite palace: Cahail, K. (2020, December 3). The Palace of Pharaoh Merenptah: Examining an Archaeological “Cold Case.” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PhDB98ZH2-k

Extended version (49m) available on Patreon.

Music: Keith Zizza, Luke Chaos.

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As the Libu war wound down, Merneptah's troops took captives and plundered the bodies of fallen warriors. Along the way, we also hear of "foreign peoples of the Sea," who were involved in these events. Merneptah mentions Sherden, Lukka, Tursha, Ekwesh, and Shekelesh. Who were these "Sea Peoples" and why were they coming to Egypt?

Music: Keith Zizza, Luke Chaos.

We're on YouTube! Ancient history media @dominicperryae and the podcast (plus bonus lectures) @historyegyptpodcast

Support the show and get bonus content at www.patreon.com/egyptpodcast

Transcript and references at www.egyptianhistorypodcast.com

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Merneptah vs the Libyans. In 1221 BCE, Egypt faced a crisis. Tribal coalitions from the west, and some "Peoples of the Sea" were marching on the Nile Valley. They came in their thousands, armed and ready to settle. Caught by surprise, King Merneptah and his warriors hastened to the defence...

Support the show and get early releases, ad-free episodes, bonus video content, and pictures/videos of animals I meet in Egypt and travelling www.patreon.com/egyptpodcast

Music by Bettina Joy de Guzman; Luke Chaos; and Keith Zizza.

Bibliography

Cline, E. H. (2021). 1177 B.C. The Year Civilization Collapsed (Revised edn). Princeton University Press.

D’Amato, R., & Salimbeti, Andrea. (2015). Sea Peoples of the Bronze Age Mediterranean c.1400 BC–1000 BC. Osprey.

Darnell, J. C., & Manassa, C. M. (2007). Tutankhamun’s armies: Battle and conquest during ancient Egypt’s late eighteenth dynasty. John Wiley & Sons.

Davies, B. G. (1997). Egyptian Historical Inscriptions of the Nineteenth Dynasty. Paul Aströms förlag.

Dean, R. (2017). Warfare & Weaponry in Dynastic Egypt. Pen & Sword.

Finné, M., Woodbridge, J., Labuhn, I., & Roberts, N. (2019). Holocene hydro-climatic variability in the Mediterranean: A synthetic multi-proxy reconstruction. The Holocene, 29, 847--863. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0959683619826634

Heagren, B. (2010). The Art of War in Pharaonic Egypt [Unpublished PhD. Thesis, The University of Auckland]. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/49463150_The_art_of_war_in_pharaonic_Egypt_an_analysis_of_the_tactical_logistic_and_operational_capabilities_of_the_Egyptian_army

Healy, M. (1992). New Kingdom Egypt. Osprey Publishing.

Kaniewski, D., Campo, E. V., Guiot, J., Burel, S. L., Otto, T., & Baeteman, C. (2013). Environmental Roots of the Late Bronze Age Crisis. PLOS ONE, 8(8), e71004. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0071004

Kaniewski, D., Marriner, N., Bretschneider, J., Jans, G., Morhange, C., Cheddadi, R., Otto, T., Luce, F., & Van Campo, E. (2019). 300-year drought frames Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age transition in the Near East: New palaeoecological data from Cyprus and Syria. Regional Environmental Change, 19, 2287--2297. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-018-01460-w

Kitchen, K. A. (1975). Ramesside Inscriptions Historical and Biographical (Vols. 1–8). Blackwell. https://archive.org/details/KennethA.KitchenRamessideInscriptionsVol1

Kitchen, K. A. (1993a). Ramesside Inscriptions Translated and Annotated: Notes and Comments (Vols. 1–2). Blackwell.

Kitchen, K. A. (1993b). Ramesside Inscriptions Translated and Annotated: Translations (Vols. 1–7). Blackwell.

Kopanias, K. (2017). Mercenaries or refugees? The evidence from the inscriptions of Merenptah on the “Sea Peoples.” Journal of Greek Archaeology, 2, 119--133. https://www.ancientportsantiques.com/wp-content/uploads/Documents/AUTHORS/SeaPeoples/SeaPeoples-Kopanias2017.pdf

Manassa, C. (2003). The Great Karnak Inscription of Merneptah: Grand Strategy in the 13th Century BC. The Yale Egyptological Seminar.

Pollastrini, A. M. (2024). Helmets and Body Armour in New Kingdom Egypt. Bloomsbury Academic. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781350323520

Sabbahy, L. (2013). Depictional Study of Chariot Use in New Kingdom Egypt. In A. Veldmeijer & S. Ikram (Eds.), Chasing Chariots: Proceedings of the First International Chariot Conference (Cairo 2012) (pp. 191--202). Sidestone Press.

Shaw, G. J. (2017). War and Trade with the Pharaohs: An Archaeological Study of Ancient Egypt’s Foreign Relations. Pen & Sword.

Shaw, I. (2019). Ancient Egyptian Warfare. Casemate.

Snape, S. (2003a). The Emergence of Libya on the Horizon of Egypt. In D. O’Connor & S. Quirke (Eds.), Mysterious Lands (pp. 93--106). UCL Press.

Snape, S. (2003b). Zawiyet Umm el-Rakham and Egyptian Foreign Trade in the Thirteenth Century BC. Sea Routes: Interconnections in the Mediterranean 16th-6th c. BC. https://www.academia.edu/107251529/Snape_ZUR_and_Egyptian_Foreign_Trade_Zawiyet_Umm_el_Rakham_and_Egyptian_foreign_trade_in_the_thirteenth_century_BC_

Snape, S. (2023). What was Zawiyet Umm el-Rakham for? Early Ramesside Strategy in the Libyan West. In F. Hoffmann & M. R. Abbas (Eds.), Perspectives on the Ramesside Military System (pp. 143--155). Zaphon.

Spalinger, A. J. (2004). Review: Manassa, Colleen 2003. The Great Karnak inscription of Merneptah: Grand strategy in the 13th century BC. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 90(reviews supplement), 45--47. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3822286

Zutterman, C. (2003). The bow in the Ancient Near East, a re-evaluation of archery from the late 2nd millennium to the end of the Achaemenid empire. IrAnt, 38, 119--165.

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Merneptah started his reign aggressively, striking a belligerent tone in his royal names and launching an expedition to Canaan in the first few years. In the process, his troops captured Ashkelon, Gezer, and Yenoam, and dealt with a tribe called "Israel." Simultaneously, Merneptah achieved a great diplomatic coup when we brought Ugarit back into the Egyptian sphere.

Music by Keith Zizza & Luke Chaos.

Video version available at www.patreon.com/egyptpodcast

Merneptah General

Dodson, A. (2016). Poisoned Legacy: The Decline and Fall of the Nineteenth Egyptian Dynasty (Revised edn).

Iskander, S. (2002). The Reign of Merneptah [Unpublished PhD. Thesis].

Kitchen, K. A. (1987). The Titularies of the Ramesside Kings as Expression of their Ideal Kingship. Annales Du Service Des Antiquités de l’Égypte, 71, 131--141.

Servajean, F. (2014). Mérenptah et la fin de la XIXe dynastie.

Sourouzian, H. (1989). Les Monuments du roi Merenptah.

Canaan, Ugarit, Proto-Israelites (Summary)

Cline, E. H. (2021). 1177 B.C. The Year Civilization Collapsed (Revised edn).

Dever, W. G. (2017). Beyond the texts: An archaeological portrait of ancient Israel and Judah.

Hasel, M. G. (1998). Domination & Resistance: Egyptian Military Activity in the Southern Levant, ca. 1300-1185 BC.

Higginbotham, C. R. (2000). Egyptianization and Elite Emulation in Ramesside Palestine: Governance and Accommodation on the Imperial Periphery.

Kahn, D. (2024). The order of Merenptah’s reliefs at the Cour de la Cachette, Karnak and its implications. JSSEA, 51, 15-43 online.

Killebrew, A. E. (2020). Early Israel’s Origins, Settlement, and Ethnogenesis. In B. E. Kelle & B. A. Strawn (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Historical Books of the Hebrew Bible (pp. 79--93). https://www.academia.edu/101675394/Early_Israels_Origins_Settlement_and_Ethnogenesis_by_Ann_E_Killebrew_2020

Kitchen, K. A. (2004). The Victories of Merenptah, and the Nature of their Record. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, 28(3), 259--272. https://doi.org/10.1177/030908920402800301

Lackenbacher, S. (1995). Une Correspondence entre l’administration du pharaon Merneptah et le roi d’Ougarit. In Le pays d’Ougarit autour de 1200 av. J.-C.: Histoire et archéologie (pp. 77--84). https://www.mission-ougarit.fr/parutions/serie-ras-shamra-ougarit/

Maeir, A. M. (1988). Remarks on a Supposed “Egyptian Residency” at Gezer. Tel Aviv, 15, 65--67. https://doi.org/10.1179/tav.1988.1988.1.65

Morris, E. F. (2005). The Architecture of Imperialism: Military Bases and the Evolution of Foreign Policy in Egypt’s New Kingdom.

Morris, E. F. (2015). Egypt, Ugarit, the God Ba’al, and the Puzzle of a Royal Rebuff. In J. Mynářová, P. Onderka, & P. Pavúk (Eds.), There and Back Again—The Crossroads II (pp. 315--351). Charles University. https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D8WW9154

Rainey, A. F. (2001). Israel in Merenptah’s Inscription and Reliefs. Israel Exploration Journal, 51(1), 57–75. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27926956

Singer, I. (1988). Merneptah’s Campaign to Canaan and the Egyptian Occupation of the Southern Coastal Plain of Palestine in the Ramesside Period. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 269, 1--10. https://doi.org/10.2307/1356946

Singer, I. (2011). The Calm Before the Storm: Selected Writings of Itamar Singer on the late Bronze Age in Anatolia and the Levant.

Steiner, R. C. (2024). Merenptah’s Israel, His Shasu Militiamen, His Copper Caravan Route, and the Watering Stations Bearing His Name at Kadesh-Barnea and Me-Nephtoah: Part One. In B. P. Muhs & F. D. Scalf (Eds.), A Master of Secrets in the Chamber of Darkness: Egyptological Studies in Honor of Robert K. Ritner (pp. 329--402). https://www.academia.edu/123986155/Merenptahs_Israel_his_Shasu_militiamen_his_copper_caravan_route_and_the_watering_stations_bearing_his_name_at_Kadesh_barnea_and_Me_nephtoah_Part_One

Yurco, F. J. (1986). Merenptah’s Canaanite Campaign. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, 23, 189--215. https://doi.org/10.2307/40001099

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