This summary episode explores the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), the devastating conflict that served as a bloody rehearsal for World War II where competing political ideologies clashed with deadly consequences. Born from the collapse of Spain's military dictatorship and the struggle of the Second Spanish Republic against economic depression and social upheaval, the war erupted when General Francisco Franco launched a military coup from Spanish Morocco in July 1936. What followed was a brutal three-year conflict that split Spain between Franco's Nationalists—backed by fascist Italy and Nazi Germany—and the Republican Popular Front, a fractured coalition of republicans, communists, and anarchists supported by the Soviet Union and international volunteers in the famous International Brigades. The episode traces key battles from the siege of Madrid to the terror bombing of Guernica, while examining how internal divisions among the Republicans, particularly the violent May 1937 clashes between communists and anarchists in Barcelona, fatally weakened their cause. Ultimately, Franco's victory came at the cost of 350,000 lives and left Spain devastated, leading to decades of dictatorship while providing the major European powers with military experience and technology testing that would shape the coming world war—though each nation would learn selective lessons that suited their existing beliefs rather than the full reality of modern warfare.

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Prit Buttar joins the podcast for the second time to discuss his recently released book for Osprey Publishing titled Into the Reich: The Red Army's Advance to the Oder in 1945.

You can find out more about the book, and purchase your own copy here: https://www.ospreypublishing.com/us/into-the-reich-9781472866998/

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This summary episode revisits the rise of Italian fascism and Benito Mussolini's path to power during the tumultuous early 1920s. Born from Italy's sense of betrayal after World War I—when promised territorial gains in the Mediterranean never materialized—the fascist movement gained momentum as a bulwark against the growing Communist threat. Led by military veterans discharged into a war-ravaged economy, fascist squads found support among industrialists and political elites who saw them as the only force capable of matching Communist passion and violence. Mussolini's dramatic March on Rome in October 1922 proved to be a strategic masterstroke that, despite being poorly organized, succeeded when King Victor Emmanuel III chose not to declare martial law, instead appointing Mussolini as Prime Minister of Europe's first fascist government. What followed was a gradual consolidation of power, marked by the rigged 1924 elections under the Acerbo Law and the pivotal Matteotti murder, after which Mussolini fully embraced fascist violence and began reshaping Italian society. The episode traces how Mussolini's expansionist ambitions led to costly adventures in Ethiopia and the Spanish Civil War, ultimately leaving Italy militarily weakened and economically strained just as it prepared to enter World War II as Germany's junior partner—setting the stage for an even greater disaster than the first world war.

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For this interview I was joined by William Hiestand to discuss his upcoming book on the usage of airpower over the battlefield of Kursk in 1943. You can grab a copy here: https://www.ospreypublishing.com/us/kursk-1943-9781472865168/

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In this concluding episode of the Battle of Britain series, we examine the final outcomes and lasting impact of Germany's 1940 air campaign against Britain. While the Luftwaffe lost approximately 1,900 aircraft compared to the RAF's 1,600, the true failure lay in Germany's inability to achieve their strategic goal of neutralizing Fighter Command before the planned invasion. Despite inflated kill claims on both sides, Air Marshal Dowding's assessment reveals that German airfield attacks never came close to crippling RAF operations, with only two airfields rendered unfit for more than a few hours. The episode explores why the Luftwaffe's objectives were fundamentally beyond their capabilities, given the limited time window and insufficient understanding of what strategic bombing required. With Sea Lion postponed in September 1940, the focus shifts to how this victory - while preventing invasion - was far from ending the war, as Churchill's sobering October speech reminds us that "long, dark months of trials and tribulations" still lay ahead in the Mediterranean and beyond.

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This time I am joined by Richard Hargreaves to discuss his new book Opening the Gates of Hell: Operation Barbarossa.

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In this gripping episode, we explore the devastating German night bombing campaign known as the Blitz, which terrorized Britain from September 1940 to May 1941. While London bore the brunt of 57 consecutive nights of bombing that killed 40,000 people and destroyed over a million homes, many other British cities suffered similar devastation as the Luftwaffe attempted to break British morale and cripple the nation's war effort. Despite the widespread destruction, the RAF's Fighter Command was ill-prepared for night interceptions, lacking both aerial radar technology and adequate anti-aircraft defenses, leaving British civilians to endure the onslaught largely unprotected. From the famous use of London Tube stations as makeshift shelters to the remarkable grassroots organization of shelter committees, ordinary British citizens demonstrated extraordinary resilience in the face of nightly terror. Though the Luftwaffe dropped thousands of tons of bombs and caused immense suffering, their strategic goals remained unfulfilled – instead of breaking British spirit, the Blitz ultimately strengthened national resolve and became a defining symbol of wartime endurance that would echo through history.

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By the end of September 1940, the threat of German invasion had passed, but victory in the Battle of Britain sparked a bitter internal conflict within RAF Fighter Command. Air Vice-Marshal Keith Park of 11 Group, who had successfully defended southeastern England using small, quick-response fighter formations, found himself under attack from Air Vice-Marshal Leigh-Mallory of 12 Group, who advocated for "Big Wing" tactics—concentrating multiple squadrons into large formations. This strategic disagreement, fueled by inflated victory claims and personal ambitions, ultimately led to the removal of both Hugh Dowding, head of Fighter Command, and Park himself in late 1940. Despite their crucial roles in Britain's survival during the summer of 1940, these architects of victory were cast aside just as the threat they had defeated was transforming into the night bombing campaign of the Blitz.

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In the aftermath of Battle of Britain Day, both sides struggled to understand what had really changed in the aerial war over Britain. While the Luftwaffe leadership blamed their fighter pilots for the costly losses on September 15th, faulty intelligence drastically underestimated RAF strength at just 177 fighters when the actual number was 659—a miscalculation that would prove decisive. As the German high command faced the reality that their air campaign had failed to achieve air superiority, the logistical challenges of Operation Sea Lion became insurmountable, from RAF Bomber Command's devastating "Battle of the Barges" to the impossible timeline for moving armored divisions across the Channel. On September 17th, Hitler quietly postponed the invasion—not with fanfare, but with a bureaucratic whimper that effectively ended Germany's hopes of conquering Britain in 1940. The final daylight raids of September would see the Luftwaffe's grand campaign dissolve into desperate, costly attacks that only confirmed Fighter Command's continued strength, marking the end of one of history's most crucial air battles.

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On September 15, 1940—Battle of Britain Day—the Luftwaffe launched what would become the climactic daylight assault of their campaign against Britain. In a desperate final effort to enable Operation Sea Lion, the German invasion of Britain, over 500 bombers escorted by hundreds of fighters targeted London's railways and dockyards in two massive raids. However, RAF Fighter Command rose to meet them with unprecedented coordination, deploying every available squadron in a series of perfectly timed intercepts that turned the skies above London into absolute mayhem. Despite wildly exaggerated victory claims on both sides, the day's fighting proved that Fighter Command was far from the spent force the Germans had hoped, while the Luftwaffe's mounting losses and fuel limitations exposed the futility of their campaign. As weather closed in and Hitler postponed Sea Lion indefinitely, September 15th marked not just the end of the daytime Battle of Britain, but the beginning of a new phase—the Blitz.

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