Treasures of Our Faith with Deacon Richard Vehige

Today, January 25th, as our church celebrates the Feast of the Conversion of Paul, Apostle, our Church invites us to read reflect on a passage from Saint Paul's letter to the Galatians (1:11-24), entitled "The Father has revealed his Sonto me that I might proclaim his Gospel". Our treasure, which follows, is from a homily by Saint John Chrysostom, bishop.

Saint Paul's entire life can be explained in terms of one experience—his meeting with Jesus on the road to Damascus. In an instant, he saw that all the zeal of his dynamic personality was being wasted, like the strength of a boxer swinging wildly. Perhaps he had never seen Jesus, who was only a few years older. But he had acquired a zealot's hatred of all Jesus stood for, as he began to harass the Church: "…entering house after house and dragging out men and women, he handed them over for imprisonment". Now he himself was "entered," possessed, all his energy harnessed to one goal—being a slave of Christ in the ministry of reconciliation, an instrument to help others experience the one Savior.

One sentence determined his theology: "I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting". Jesus was mysteriously identified with people—the loving group of people Saul had been running down like criminals. Jesus, he saw, was the mysterious fulfillment of all he had been blindly pursuing.

From then on, his only work was to "present everyone perfect in Christ. For this I labor and struggle, in accord with the exercise of his power working within me". "For our gospel did not come to you in word alone, but also in power and in the Holy Spirit and with much conviction".

Paul's life became a tireless proclaiming and living out of the message of the cross: Christians die baptismally to sin and are buried with Christ; they are dead to all that is sinful and unredeemed in the world. They are made into a new creation, already sharing Christ's victory and someday to rise from the dead like him. Through this risen Christ the Father pours out the Spirit on them, making them completely new.

So, Paul's great message to the world was: You are saved entirely by God, not by anything you can do. Saving faith is the gift of total, free, personal and loving commitment to Christ, a commitment that then bears fruit in more "works" than the Law could ever contemplate.

Saint John Chrysostom was an important, fourth century, Early Church Father who served as Archbishop of Constantinople. He is known for his preaching and public speaking, and for his denunciation of abuse of authority of both ecclesiastical and political leaders. He was among the most prolific authors in the early Christian church. The word 'Chrysostom' means 'golden-mounted'. This name was given to him after he died because all his sermons were eloquent and lovely to hear.

The Galatians to whom the letter is addressed were Paul's converts, most likely among the descendants of Celts who had invaded western and central Asia Minor in the third century B.C. and had settled in the territory around Ancyra (modern Ankara, Turkey). Paul had passed through this area on his second missionary journey and again on his third. It is less likely that the recipients of this letter were Paul's churches in the southern regions of Pisidia, Lycaonia, and Pamphylia where he had preached earlier in the Hellenized cities of Perge, Iconium, Pisidian Antioch, Lystra, and Derbe; this area was part of the Roman province of Galatia, and some scholars think that South Galatia was the destination of this letter.

On Wednesday of the Second Week in Ordinary Time our Church invites us to read and reflect on a passage from the book of Deuteronomy (7:6-14; 8:1-6) entitled "Israel, the chosen people". Our treasure, which follows, is from the dogmatic constitution on the Church of the Second Vatican Council.

Lumen gentium, the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, is one of the principal documents of the Second Vatican Council. This dogmatic constitution was promulgated by Pope Paul VI on 21 November 1964, following approval by the assembled bishops by a vote of 2,151 to 5. As is customary with significant Roman Catholic Church documents, it is known by its incipit, "Lumen gentium", Latin for 'Light of the Nations'. The document's purpose is to clarify the church's nature and mission, and to help humanity achieve unity in Christ. The document also describes the church as a communion of charity and highlights its complex reality of human and divine elements.

The eight chapters of the document can be paired thematically: chapters one and two treat the church's nature and historical existence, chapters three and four treat different roles in the church, chapters five and six treat holiness and religious life, while chapters seven and eight discuss the saints and Mary.

The book of Deuteronomy ends the five books of the Torah or Pentateuch with a retrospective account of Israel's past—the exodus, the Sinai covenant, and the wilderness wanderings—and a look into Israel's future as they stand poised to enter the land of Canaan and begin their life as a people there.

The book consists of three long addresses by Moses. Each of these contains narrative, law, and exhortation, in varying proportions. In an expansion of the first commandment of the decalogue, Moses tells the Israelites how to make a success of their life as a people once they are settled in the land. The choice presented to Israel is to love the Lord and keep his commandments, or to serve "other gods." That choice will determine what kind of life they will make for themselves in the land. Whichever choice they make as a people carries consequences, which Deuteronomy terms "blessing" and "curse." Thus, the book can be seen as a kind of survival manual for Israel in their life as a people: how to live and what to avoid. This gives the book its hortatory style and tone of life-or-death urgency.

Today, January 21, as our Church celebrates the Memorial of Agnes, Virgin and Martyr, we are invited to read and reflect on a passage from the first letter of the apostle Paul to the Corinthians (7: 25-40), entitled "Christian chastity". Our treasure, which follows, is from a treatise On Virgins by Saint Ambrose, bishop.

St. Agnes of Rome was born in 291 AD and raised in a Christian family. Agnes was very beautiful and belonged to a wealthy family. Her hand in marriage was highly sought after, and she had many high-ranking men chasing after her. However, Agnes made a promise to God never to stain her purity. Her love for the Lord was great and she hated sin even more than death! – Whenever a man wished to marry Agnes, she would always say, "Jesus Christ is my only Spouse."

According to legend, the young men she turned away became so angry and insulted by her devotion to God and purity that they began to submit her name to authorities as a Christian follower. In great anger, [suitor] Prokop accused her of being a Christian and brought her to his father, the Governor. The Governor promised Agnes wonderful gifts if she would only deny God, but Agnes refused. He tried to change her mind by putting her in chains, but her lovely face shone with joy.

Next, he sent her to a place of sin, but an Angel protected her. At last, she was condemned to death. Even the pagans cried to see such a young and beautiful girl going to death. Yet, Agnes was as happy as a bride on her wedding day. She did not pay attention to those who begged her to save herself. "I would offend my Spouse," she said, "if I were to try to please you. He chose me first and He shall have me!" Then she prayed and bowed her head for the death-stroke of the sword.

Saint Ambrose was born of a Roman family at Trier about the year 340. He studied at Rome and served in the imperial government at Sirmium. In 374, while, living in Milan, he was elected bishop of the city by popular acclaim and ordained on December 7. He devotedly carried out his duties and especially distinguished himself by his service to the poor, and as an effective pastor and teacher of the faithful. He strenuously guarded the laws of the church and defended orthodox teaching by writings and actions against the Arians. He died on Holy Saturday, April 4, 397. Saint Ambrose is a Doctor of the Church.

"Concerning Virgins" by Saint Ambrose is a thought-provoking and insightful read on the virtue of virginity. Saint Ambrose presents a compelling argument for the spiritual benefits of choosing a life of celibacy and purity. Through a combination of biblical teachings and philosophical reflections, the author challenges readers to reconsider their views on sexual ethics and the importance of maintaining moral integrity in a society that often promotes excess and indulgence.

The book provides a fascinating glimpse into the early Christian attitudes towards sexuality and the role of celibacy in one's spiritual journey. Saint Ambrose's persuasive arguments are supported by biblical references and theological reasoning that make a strong case for the value of virginity as a path to deeper communion with God.

Overall, "Concerning Virgins" offers valuable insights and reflections on the significance of chastity and the pursuit of holiness in a world that often prioritizes worldly pleasures over spiritual growth. This book is a must-read for anyone interested in exploring the intersection of faith, ethics, and sexuality.

In his first letter to the Corinthians Paul warns against divisions within the Church and emphasizes the importance of unity among Church members. He warns members against sexual immorality, teaches that the body is a temple for the Holy Spirit, and encourages self-discipline.

On Saturday of the First Week in Ordinary Time our Church invites us first to read and reflect on a passage from the book of Sirach (44:1-2, 16a---45:5), entitled, "Praise of the fathers: from Enoch to Moses". Our treasure, which follows, is from a letter to the Corinthians by Saint Clement I, pope.

Saint Clement of Rome was the third successor of Saint Peter, reigning as pope from 88 AD until his death in 99 AD. He's known as one of the Church's five "Apostolic Fathers," those who provided a direct link between the Apostles and later generations of Church Fathers. His letter to the church at Corinth is in response to a dispute in which certain presbyters of the Corinthian church had been deposed. He asserted the authority of the presbyters as rulers of the Corinthian church on the ground that the Apostles had appointed such.

The Wisdom of Ben Sira derives its title from the author, "Yeshua [Jesus], son of Eleazar, son of Sira". The author, a sage who lived in Jerusalem, was thoroughly imbued with love for the wisdom tradition, and for the law, priesthood, Temple, and divine worship. As a wise and experienced observer of life he addressed himself to his contemporaries with the motive of helping them to maintain religious faith and integrity through study of the books sacred to the Jewish tradition.

The book contains numerous well-crafted maxims, grouped by affinity, and dealing with a variety of subjects such as the individual, the family, and the community in their relations with one another and with God. It treats friendship, education, poverty and wealth, laws, religious worship, and many other matters that reflect the religious and social customs of the time. Written in Hebrew in the early years of the second century B.C., the book was finished by ca. 175. The text was translated into Greek by the author's grandson after 117 B.C.

Though not included in the Jewish Bible after the first century A.D., nor, therefore, accepted by Protestants, the Wisdom of Ben Sira has been recognized by the Catholic Church as inspired and canonical. The Foreword, though not the proper part of the book, is always included with it because of its antiquity and importance.

Today, January 13, as our Church celebrates the Memorial of Hilary, Bishop and Doctor, we are invited to read and reflect on a passage from the book of Wisdom (7: 7-16, 22-30), entitled "The joy of the just united to God". Our treasure, which follows, is from a sermon On the Trinity by Saint Hilary, bishop.

Saint Hilary was a fourth century bishop in France. He was staunch defender of the divinity of Christ, was a gentle and courteous man, devoted to writing some of the greatest theology on the Trinity, and was like his Master in being labeled a "disturber of the peace." In a very troubled period in the Church, his holiness was lived out in both scholarship and controversy. He was bishop of Poitiers in France. Raised a pagan, he was converted to Christianity when he met his God of nature in the Scriptures. His wife was still living when he was chosen, against his will, to be the bishop of Poitiers in France about 350. He was soon taken up with battling what became the scourge of the fourth century, Arianism, which denied the divinity of Christ. The heresy spread rapidly. Saint Jerome said, "The world groaned and marveled to find that it was Arian." When Emperor Constantius ordered all the bishops of the West to sign a condemnation of Athanasius, the great defender of the faith in the East, Hilary refused and was banished from France to far off Phrygia. Eventually he was called the "Athanasius of the West. "While writing in exile, he was invited by some semi-Arians (hoping for reconciliation) to a council the emperor called to counteract the Council of Nicaea. But Hilary predictably defended the Church, and when he sought public debate with the heretical bishop who had exiled him, the Arians, dreading the meeting and its outcome, pleaded with the emperor to send this troublemaker back home. Hilary was welcomed by his people. He died in 367. Pope Pius IX formally recognized him as a Doctor of the Church in 1851.

During the years between the Council of Nicaea (325) and the Council of Constantinople (381), imperial opposition to Nicene theology sent several of its supporters into exile. One of these supporters was Hilary, the Bishop of Poitiers. Begun during its author's exile (356-360), Hilary's "On the Trinity" provides a comprehensive discussion of the relationship between God the Father and God the Son: they are consubstantial, co-eternal, and fully equal. This work was a trailblazer in its day because, apart from Tertullian's relatively brief remarks on the Trinity, it is the earliest study of Trinitarian doctrine in the Latin language.

The Book of Wisdom was written about fifty years before the coming of Christ. Its author, whose name is not known to us, was probably a member of the Jewish community at Alexandria, in Egypt. He wrote in Greek, in a style patterned on that of Hebrew verse. At times he speaks in the person of Solomon, placing his teachings on the lips of the wise king of Hebrew tradition to emphasize their value. His profound knowledge of the earlier Old Testament writings is reflected in almost every line of the book, and marks him, like Ben Sira, as an outstanding representative of religious devotion and learning among the sages of postexilic Judaism.

The primary purpose of the author was the edification of his co-religionists in a time when they had experienced suffering and oppression, in part at least at the hands of apostate fellow Jews. To convey his message, he made use of the most popular religious themes of his time, namely the splendor and worth of divine wisdom, the glorious events of the exodus, God's mercy, the folly of idolatry, and the way God's justice operates in rewarding or punishing the individual. The first ten chapters in particular way provide background for the teaching of Jesus and for some New Testament theology about Jesus. Many passages from this section of the book are used by the church in the liturgy.

Today, Monday in the week after Epiphany to the Baptism of the Lord, we are invited to first read and reflect on a passage from the book of the prophet Isaiah (61: 1-11) entitled "The Spirit of the Lord is upon his servant". Our treasure, which follows, is from a sermon by Saint Peter Chrysologus, bishop.

Saint Peter Chrysologus was a fourth century Bishop of Ravenna, Italy. He was a Doctor of the Church, which means "of golden words ". He is known as the "Doctor of Homilies" for the concise but theologically rich reflections he delivered during his time.

Isaiah, one of the greatest of the prophets, appeared at a critical moment in Israel's history. The Northern Kingdom collapsed, under the hammerlike blows of Assyria, in 722/721 B.C., and in 701 Jerusalem itself saw the army of Sennacherib drawn up before its walls. In the year that Uzziah, king of Judah, died, Isaiah received his call to the prophetic office in the Temple of Jerusalem. Close attention should be given to chapter six, where this divine summons to be the ambassador of the Most High is circumstantially described.

The vision of the Lord enthroned in glory stamps an indelible character on Isaiah's ministry and provides a key to the understanding of his message. The majesty, holiness and glory of the Lord took possession of his spirit and, at the same time, he gained a new awareness of human pettiness and sinfulness. The enormous abyss between God's sovereign holiness and human sinfulness overwhelmed the prophet. Only the purifying coal of the seraphim could cleanse his lips and prepare him for acceptance of the call: "Here I am, send me!"

The ministry of Isaiah extended from the death of Uzziah in 742 B.C. to Sennacherib's siege of Jerusalem in 701 B.C., and it may have continued even longer, until after the death of Hezekiah in 687 B.C. Later legend (the Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah) claims that Hezekiah's son, Manasseh, executed Isaiah by having him sawed in two. During this long ministry, the prophet returned again and again to the same themes, and there are indications that he may have sometimes re-edited his older prophecies to fit new occasions.

Today, January 3, as our Church celebrates The Most holy Name of Jesus we are invited to reflect on a passage from the letter of the apostle Paul to the Colossians (3: 5-16), entitled "The new life of man". Our treasure, which follows, is from a treatise on John by Saint Augustine, bishop.

Reverence for the Holy Name of our Lord, Jesus Christ, arose in the apostolic times. St. Paul in his Letter to the Philippians wrote, "So that at Jesus' name every knee must bend in the heavens, on the earth and under the earth, and every tongue proclaim to the glory of God the Father: Jesus Christ is Lord". Just as a name gives identity to a person and also reflects a person's life, the name of Jesus reminds the hearer of who Jesus is and what He has done for us. Keep in mind that the name Jesus means "Yahweh saves" or "Yahweh is salvation."

In invoking our Lord's name with reverential faith, one is turning to Him and imploring His divine assistance. An old spiritual manual cited four special rewards of invoking the Holy Name: First, the name of Jesus brings help in bodily needs. Jesus Himself promised at the Ascension, "…In my name they will cast out demons, they will speak in new tongues, they will pick up serpents, and if they drink any deadly thing, it will not hurt them, they will lay their hands on the sick and they will recover". After Pentecost, St. Peter and St. John went to the Temple to preach and encountered a cripple begging; St. Peter commanded, "I have neither silver nor gold, but what I have I give you! In the name of Jesus Christ, the Nazorean, walk!" and the crippled began to walk. Invoking Jesus' name, St. Peter also cured Aeneas.

Second, the name of Jesus gives help in spiritual trials. Jesus forgave sins, and through the invocation of His Holy Name, sins continue to be forgiven. At Pentecost, St. Peter echoed the prophecy of Joel, "Then shall everyone be saved who calls on the name of the Lord", a teaching echoed by St. Paul in his Letter to the Romans. As St. Stephen, the first martyr, was being stoned, he called upon the name of the Lord and prayed, "Lord Jesus, receive my spirit". St. Thomas More, the patron saint of our diocese, as he awaited execution wrote to his daughter Margaret, "I will not mistrust Him, Meg, though I shall feel myself weakening and on the verge of being overcome with fear. I shall remember how Saint Peter at a blast of wind began to sink because of his lack of faith, and I shall do as he did: call upon Christ and pray to Him for help. And then I trust He shall place His holy hand on me and in the stormy seas hold me up from drowning."

Third, the name of Jesus protects the person against Satan and his temptations. Jesus on His own authority exorcized demons (e.g. the expulsion of the demons of Gadara. Through the invocation of His Holy Name, Satan is still conquered.

Finally, we receive every grace and blessing through the Holy Name of Jesus. Jesus said, "I give you my assurance, whatever you ask the Father, He will give you in my name. Until now you have not asked for anything in my name. Ask and you shall receive, that your joy may be full". In summary, St. Paul said, "Whatever you do, in whether in speech or in action, do it in the name of the Lord Jesus".

Gregory of Nazianzus, was an early Roman Christian theologian and prelate who served as Archbishop of Constantinople from 380 to 381. He is known for instituting the first recorded large-scale mission from Rome, the Gregorian mission, to convert the then largely pagan Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. Gregory is also well known for his writings, which were more prolific than those of any of his predecessors as pope He is widely considered the most accomplished rhetorical stylist of the patristic age.

Saint Augustine was born at Tagaste in Africa in 354. He was unsettled and restlessly searched for the truth until he was converted to the faith at Milan and baptized by Ambrose. Returning to his homeland, he embraced an ascetic life and subsequently was elected bishop of Hippo. For thirty-four years he guided his flock, instructing it with sermons and many writings. He fought bravely against the errors of his time and explained the Faith carefully and cogently through his writings. He is also a preeminent Catholic Doctor of the Church. His writings influenced the development of western philosophy and western Christianity, and he is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers of the Latin Church in the Patristic Period. He died in 430.

The "Tractates on the Gospel of John" are actually 124 pieces of writing. Augustine used the word "tractate" for any prepared spoken communication. Many of these tractates he delivered as homilies or sermons from the pulpit, and they were copied by stenographers in the congregation; others he dictated directly to stenographers in private, but in a way that they could later be read aloud in a church as a homily by others. His commentary on the Gospel of John is primarily pastoral rather than consciously being highly theological. Augustine's focus in these tractates is on Incarnation, or the Word made flesh. This is not only a distinctive and important theme in the Gospel of John; it was a significant part of Augustine's own conversion, as mentioned in the Confessions.

Today, December 28, as our church celebrates the Feast of the Holy Innocents, we are invited to first read and reflect on a passage from the book of Exodus (1: 8-16,22), entitled "Slaughter of the Hebrew children in Egypt". Our treasure, which follows, is from a sermon by Saint Quodvultdeus, bishop.

The Feast of the Holy Innocents, also known as Childermas, is celebrated in the Western Christian Churches on 28 December, the fourth day of Octave of Christmas. The Slaughter of the Innocents is a story recounted in the Nativity narrative of the Gospel of Matthew in which Herod the Great, king of Judea, orders the execution of all male children who are two years old and under in the vicinity of Bethlehem. Modern scholarship finds no evidence that it happened outside the passages in Matthew, though it is congruous with Herod's character.

Saint Quodvultdeus was a fifth-century Church Father and Bishop of Carthage who was exiled to Naples. His name literally means "what God wills" in Latin. He was known to have been living in Carthage around 407 and became a deacon in 421 AD. He corresponded with Augustine of Hippo, who served as Quodvultdeus' spiritual teacher. He acceded to the see in 432 or 433. Shortly after the Vandals seized Carthage in 439, their king Geiseric despoiled Quodvultdeus and placed him and a host of his fellow clergymen "naked on dangerous ships," according to Victor of Vita. Quodvultdeus arrived safely in Naples, where he spent the remainder of his life in exile. He died sometime before October 454, when Deogratias was ordained his successor. Soon after his death Quodvultdeus was honored as a saint and confessor in both Naples and Carthage.

The second book of the Pentateuch is called Exodus, from the Greek word for "departure," because its central event was understood by the Septuagint's translators to be the departure of the Israelites from Egypt. Its Hebrew title, Shemoth ("Names"), is from the book's opening phrase, "These are the names…." Continuing the history of Israel from the point where the Book of Genesis leaves off, Exodus recounts the Egyptian oppression of Jacob's ever-increasing descendants and their miraculous deliverance by God through Moses, who led them across the Red Sea to Mount Sinai where they entered into a covenant with the Lord. Covenantal laws and detailed prescriptions for the tabernacle (a portable sanctuary foreshadowing the Jerusalem Temple) and its service are followed by a dramatic episode of rebellion, repentance, and divine mercy. After the broken covenant is renewed, the tabernacle is constructed, and the cloud signifying God's glorious presence descends to cover it.

These events made Israel a nation and confirmed their unique relationship with God. The "law" (Hebrew torah) given by God through Moses to the Israelites at Mount Sinai constitutes the moral, civil, and ritual legislation by which they were to become a holy people. Many elements of it were fundamental to the teaching of Jesus as well as to New Testament and Christian moral teaching

Today, December 20th, as we celebrate the final days of Advent our Church invites us to first read and reflect on a passage from the book of the prophet Isaiah (48: 1-11) entitled "God alone is Lord of the future". Our treasure, which follows, is from a homily In Praise of the Virgin Mother by Saint Bernard, abbot.

Saint Bernard was born in 1090 near Dijon in France. After a religious upbringing, he joined the Cistercians in 1111 and later was chosen abbot of the monastery of Clairvaux in southeast France in an area known as Bar-sur-Aube. There he directed his companions in the practice of virtue by his own good example. In the year 1128, Bernard attended the Council of Troyes, at which he traced the outlines of the Rule of the Knights Templar, which soon became an ideal of Christian nobility. Both monastic rule and military manual, the Rule is a unique document and an important historical source.

He was centrally responsible for the early expansion of the Cistercian Order throughout Europe. Tens of thousands heard his powerful preaching, and he personally attracted and helped many hundreds of men to follow a call to monastic life. Because of schisms which had a risen in the Church, he traveled all about Europe restoring peace and unity. He wrote many theological and spiritual works. Bernard was canonized just 21 years after his death by Pope Alexander III. He died in 1153. In 1830 Pope Pius VIII declared him a Doctor of the Church.

For St. Bernard, the greatness of Mary was rooted in her exalted status as the Mother of the Incarnate Word. He once said that if we realize whose Mother she is, we would understand that we "cannot admire her enough

Isaiah, one of the greatest of the prophets, appeared at a critical moment in Israel's history. The Northern Kingdom collapsed, under the hammerlike blows of Assyria, in 722/721 B.C., and in 701 Jerusalem itself saw the army of Sennacherib drawn up before its walls. In the year that Uzziah, king of Judah, died, Isaiah received his call to the prophetic office in the Temple of Jerusalem. Close attention should be given to chapter six, where this divine summons to be the ambassador of the Most High is circumstantially described.

Today, December 14, as our Church celebrates the Memorial of John of the Cross, Priest and Doctor, we are invited to first reflect on a passage from the book of Sirach (39: 4-10), entitled "The wisdom of a man who is learned in the Scriptures". Our treasure, which follows, is from a spiritual Canticle by Saint John of the Cross, priest.

Saint John of the Cross is considered among the greatest mystics in the history of the Church. He was born at Fontiveros in Spain around 1542. After a number of years as a Carmelite, he was persuaded by Saint Teresa of Avila in 1568 to lead a reform movement among the brothers which brought a new energy to the Carmelite Order. Renowned for his wisdom and sanctity, his spiritual writings, especially the classic spiritual treatise "The Dark Night of the Soul", remain a fitting testimony to his life. He died at Ubeda in 1591.

The Wisdom of Ben Sira derives its title from the author, "Yeshua [Jesus], son of Eleazar, son of Sira". The title "Sirach" comes from the Greek form of the author's name. The author, a sage who lived in Jerusalem, was thoroughly imbued with love for the wisdom tradition, and also for the law, priesthood, Temple, and divine worship. As a wise and experienced observer of life he addressed himself to his contemporaries with the motive of helping them to maintain religious faith and integrity through study of the books sacred to the Jewish tradition.

The book contains numerous well-crafted maxims, grouped by affinity, and dealing with a variety of subjects such as the individual, the family, and the community in their relations with one another and with God. It treats of friendship, education, poverty and wealth, laws, religious worship, and many other matters that reflect the religious and social customs of the time.