CLICK HERE to listen to episode audio (4:59) Transcript of audio, notes on the audio, images, and additional information follow below. All Web addresses mentioned were functional as of 9-16-16. TRANSCRIPT OF AUDIO From the Cumberland Gap to the Atlantic Ocean, this is Virginia Water Radio for the week of September 19, 2016. SOUND – ~ 4 sec This week, that sound of the James River at Lynchburg sets the stage for a Virginia rivers quiz. I’m going to ask six questions about six of Virginia’s major rivers, and after you get a few seconds to consider each question, I’ll give you the answer with a musical selection about the correct river. Here are the musical selections for the different rivers: “All Quiet Along the Potomac Tonight,” played by Chloe Benner and Stewart Scales [MUSIC - ~ 6 sec]; “James River Blues,” by Old Crow Medicine Show [MUSIC - ~ 3 sec]; “Rappahannock Running Free,” by Bob Gramann [MUSIC - ~ 5 sec]; “Shenandoah,” played by Timothy Seaman [MUSIC - ~ 6 sec]; “On the Banks of New River,” by Whitetop Mountain Band [MUSIC - ~ 6 sec]; and for the Clinch River, “Clinch Mountain Quickstep” by Timothy Seaman [MUSIC - ~ 4 sec]. Now the quiz begins! Question 1: Name the river whose main stem is NOT actually in Virginia. [SHORT SILENCE THEN MUSIC – ~ 5 sec - “All Quiet Along the Potomac”] That’s the Potomac River, which is part of Maryland. Question 2: Which of the rivers mentioned has its entire drainage area, or watershed, within Virginia? [SHORT SILENCE THEN MUSIC – ~ 4 sec - “Rappahannock Running Free”] The answer is the Rappahannock River. Some might have said the James, but a small part of its headwaters is in West Virginia. Question 3: Which Virginia river has the largest watershed? [SHORT SILENCE THEN MUSIC – ~ 4 sec - “James River Blues”] This time the answer IS the James River, whose watershed covers over 10,000 square miles in Virginia. Question 4: What’s the longest river in Virginia, counting only each river’s main stem, not all of the tributaries? [SHORT SILENCE THEN MUSIC – ~ 4 sec - “James River Blues”] Once again, it’s the James, whose main stem travels about 340 miles. Question 5: What Virginia rivers flow generally north? [SHORT SILENCE THEN MUSIC – ~ 12 sec - “Banks of New River” and “Shenandoah”] Virginia’s major northerly-flowing rivers are the New River and the Shenandoah River. And last, question 6: What river flows southwesterly into Tennessee? [SHORT SILENCE THEN MUSIC – ~ 6 sec – “Clinch Mountain Quickstep”] That’s the Clinch River, one of several rivers in southwestern Virginia flowing toward the Volunteer State in the Tennessee River watershed. If you’re thinking that this short quiz left out some major Virginia rivers, you’re right! Other main rivers in the Commonwealth are the Holston, Roanoke, and York. And parts of Virginia drain into rivers or other water bodies in other states, including the Big Sandy River that forms the border between Kentucky and W.Va.; the Yadkin and Chowan rivers in North Carolina; and Albemarle Sound on North Carolina’s coast. Thanks to all the musicians mentioned for permission to use their music. And we close with another musical excerpt, one that’s fitting for the activity you just did: “Exploring the Rivers” by Timothy Seaman. MUSIC - ~ 8 sec SHIP’S BELL For more Virginia water sounds, music, and information, visit us online at virginiawaterradio.org, or call us at (540) 231-5463. Virginia Water Radio is produced by the Virginia Water Resources Research Center, part of Virginia Tech’s College of Natural Resources and Environment. Thanks to Stewart Scales for his banjo version of Cripple Creek to open and close the show. In Blacksburg, I’m Alan Raflo, thanking you for listening, and wishing you health, wisdom, and good water. AUDIO NOTES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS “All Quiet Along the Potomac Tonight” was recorded for Virginia Water Radio by Stewart Scales and Chloe Benner; this music was featured in Virginia Water Radio Episode 318, 5-30-16. “Clinch Mountain Quickste

CLICK HERE to listen to episode audio (4:24) Transcript of audio, notes on the audio, images, and additional information follow below. All Web addresses mentioned were functional as of 9-9-16. TRANSCRIPT OF AUDIO From the Cumberland Gap to the Atlantic Ocean, this is Virginia Water Radio for the week of September 12, 2016. This week, we have a special episode written just for Virginia’s fifth-grade science students, about solutions, gases, and aquatic systems. SOUND – ~6 sec That’s probably a familiar sound to you: stirring chocolate powder into hot water. The stirring dissolves the chocolate into the water, making a solution of a solid in a liquid. Salty water is another example of a solution of a solid in a liquid, and pouring liquid detergent into a washing machine results in a solution of one liquid in another. But what, do you think, is in the solution in this next sound? SOUND – ~9 sec That was the sound of shaking, then opening, a bottle of soda, creating lots of bubbles and fizzing. Sodas are a solution mostly of water, sugar, and carbon dioxide, a gas dissolved in water that bubbles out when you shake the soda. Where else might you find gases dissolved in water? For one answer, have a listen to this sound. SOUND – ~6 sec That was the sound of gas bubbles rising from the bottom of a pond. The water in ponds, lakes, streams, rivers, and the oceans contains several kinds of dissolved gases. If you lived in water, what do you think would be the most important dissolved gas for you? Here’s a guest voice to help you with the answer. VOICE – ~13 sec Oxygen is required by most living things, and those that live in water depend on oxygen dissolved in the water. The number you heard—6.6 milligrams per liter—was the amount of dissolved oxygen in each liter of water measured in the James River near Jamestown on September 9, 2016, according to the Chesapeake Bay Interpretive Buoy system. Different aquatic organisms need different levels of dissolved oxygen, but almost all—except certain microorganisms—require some level. The amount of dissolved oxygen is one of the most important indicators of water quality and the overall health of many water bodies, including the Chesapeake Bay. Finally, here’s a question for you to answer on your own. People can stir drinks to help make chocolate or other substances dissolve, but what kinds of natural processes stir water bodies to help oxygen and other gases mix with the water and dissolve? We close with three more sounds that should help you find a solution to that question. SOUNDS - ~22 sec – [Note to teachers: The processes heard here are wind, waves, and river flow over a rapids. Other ways that oxygen and other gases get mixed and dissolved into water bodies are photosynthesis and groundwater (where groundwater represents a large input to stream flow).] SHIP’S BELL For more Virginia water sounds, music, and information, visit us online at virginiawaterradio.org, or call us at (540) 231-5463. Virginia Water Radio is produced by the Virginia Water Resources Research Center, part of Virginia Tech’s College of Natural Resources and Environment. Thanks to Stewart Scales for his banjo version of Cripple Creek to open and close the show. In Blacksburg, I’m Alan Raflo, thanking you for listening, and wishing you health, wisdom, and good water. AUDIO NOTES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks to Kevin McGuire and Daniel McLaughlin, both with Virginia Water Resources Research Center and the Virginia Tech Department of Forest Resources and Environmental Conservation, for their help with this episode. The pond bubble sounds were recorded at Heritage Park in Blacksburg, Va. (Montgomery County), July 27, 2016. The audio of a dissolved oxygen measurement was recorded from a phone call on September 9, 2016, to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Chesapeake Bay Interpretive Buoy System, online at http://buoybay.noaa.gov/observations/parameters-measured; 877-BUOY BAY (877-286-9229). The wav

CLICK HERE to listen to episode audio (3:28) Transcript of audio, notes on the audio, images, and additional information follow below. All Web addresses mentioned were functional as of 9-2-16. TRANSCRIPT OF AUDIO From the Cumberland Gap to the Atlantic Ocean, this is Virginia Water Radio for the week of September 5, 2016. This week, we feature another mystery sound. Have a listen for about 15 seconds, and see if you can guess what’s making the following whistling sounds. And here’s a hint: as fruits and flying insects WAX and wane, this WINGED creature’s food habits also change. SOUNDS - ~16 sec If you guessed a Cedar Waxwing, you’re right! If you’ve ever gotten a good look at this 5-inch-long bird, you may have seen its distinctive black mask, yellow or sometimes orange tail bar, and bright red, waxy secretions on their wings, from which the name “waxwing” comes.  Cedar Waxwings occur throughout Virginia and in all seasons.  The other North American waxwing species, the Bohemian Waxwing, has only been observed occasionally in a few Virginia counties. Cedar Waxwings are large fruit-eaters, whenever fruits are available on vines, shrubs, or trees, including cedar trees, whose seed pods can provide a major part of the birds’ winter diet.  Often the birds will gather in large groups at a fruit source.  Cedar Waxwings’ high fruit diet sometimes leads to flying drunkenly, when the birds consume older fruits whose sugar has fermented into alcohol. But when fruits are scarce, Cedar Waxwings turn largely to insects, particularly the adults of species with aquatic immature stages, such as mayflies, stoneflies, and dragonflies.  At a Virginia pond or stream in summer, you can see Cedar Waxwings darting off of a tree perch for a mid-air capture of emerging or swarming aquatic insect prey.  That flying ability can be on display in winter, too—some people have reported seeing Cedar Waxwings catching snowflakes! With their dashing colors, darting flights over water, and often dense flocks, Cedar Waxwings are a fascinating feathered treat—unless you’re an adult aquatic insect! Thanks to Lang Elliott for permission to use this week’s sounds, from the Stokes Field Guide to Bird Songs. SOUND – ~ 5 sec SHIP’S BELL For more Virginia water sounds, music, and information, visit us online at virginiawaterradio.org, or call us at (540) 231-5463. Virginia Water Radio is produced by the Virginia Water Resources Research Center, part of Virginia Tech’s College of Natural Resources and Environment. Thanks to Stewart Scales for his banjo version of Cripple Creek to open and close the show. In Blacksburg, I’m Alan Raflo, thanking you for listening, and wishing you health, wisdom, and good water. AUDIO NOTES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The sounds of Cedar Waxwings were taken from the Stokes Field Guide to Bird Songs-Eastern Region CD set, by Lang Elliott with Donald and Lillian Stokes (Time Warner Audio Books, copyright 1997), used with permission of Lang Elliott, whose work is available online at the “Music of Nature” Web site, http://www.musicofnature.org/. Thanks to Stephen Schoenholtz for suggesting this episode. Thanks to Chuck and Mary Houska for permission to visit their Blacksburg, Va., pond to observe Cedar Waxwings feeding on emerging aquatic insects. PHOTOS Cedar Waxwing at Hawley Bog in Hawley, Massachusetts, July 2011. Photo by Bill Thompson, made available for public use by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library, online at http://digitalmedia.fws.gov, accessed 9-1-16. Cedar Waxwing in a sycamore tree at the National Conservation Training Center in Shepherdstown, West Virginia, August 2015. Photo by Michelle Smith, made available for public use by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library, online at http://digitalmedia.fws.gov, accessed 9-1-16. Tree-lined pond in Blacksburg, Va., where Cedar Waxwings were feeding on emerging mayflies and other aquatic insects, September 1, 2016.

CLICK HERE to listen to episode audio (4:41) Transcript of audio, notes on the audio, images, and additional information follow below. All Web addresses mentioned were functional as of 8-26-16. TRANSCRIPT OF AUDIO From the Cumberland Gap to the Atlantic Ocean, this is Virginia Water Radio for the week of August 29, 2016. This week, we visit an area of western Virginia that’s been called “a gem within a gem”: Passage Creek and Fort Valley, tucked away within the Shenandoah Valley. Have a listen for about 35 seconds to sounds heard traveling along Fort Valley Road on a recent August day. SOUNDS – ~35 sec – Cars, crickets, cicadas, birds, motorcycle, and stream flow A large section of Virginia’s famous Shenandoah Valley is divided by Massanutten Mountain, a complex formation of ridges, pinnacles, and valleys.  Separating the Shenandoah River’s north and south forks, the Massanutten stretches from U.S. 33 near Harrisonburg about 50 miles northeastward to U.S. 55 near Front Royal.  For most of the mountain’s northern half, the Massanutten itself is split into two main ridges, separated by Passage Creek and its valley, known in the 1700s as Powell’s Fort Valley, now simply Fort Valley. For native tribes and then for European settlers, the area offered fertile land, water, and other natural resources, within a highly defensible area. In fact, during the Revolutionary War, George Washington—who had surveyed the area in the 1740s—reportedly planned to use Fort Valley as a stronghold against the British, if that had become necessary.  In the 1800s, iron ore mining and processing were powered by Passage Creek; remnants of that activity remain at the Elizabeth Furnace Recreation Area, part of the George Washington National Forest.  During the Civil War, high points on the Massanutten above Fort Valley were used by soldiers to relay signals, and Signal Knob’s name captures that history.  Today, Fort Valley still includes farms and small communities, now adjacent to the Washington National Forest. Passage Creek no longer powers iron furnaces, but it supports a relatively high diversity of fish, amphibians, and other aquatic species; attracts anglers, paddlers, and hikers; and provides water for a Virginia state fish hatchery. Splitting the prominences of Massanutten Mountain, Passage Creek and Fort Valley have generated and still harbor a wealth of biological, historical, and scenic gems. We close with part of “Rescue Me, Virginia,” by the Harrisonburg, Va.-based band The Steel Wheels, in tribute to Fort Valley’s history as a potential Revolutionary War refuge for George Washington’s army, and to the attachments people develop to special Virginia places, like Passage Creek and the valley it shapes. MUSIC - ~ 30 sec SHIP’S BELL For more Virginia water sounds, music, and information, visit us online at virginiawaterradio.org, or call us at (540) 231-5463. Virginia Water Radio is produced by the Virginia Water Resources Research Center, part of Virginia Tech’s College of Natural Resources and Environment.  Thanks to Stewart Scales for his banjo version of Cripple Creek to open and close the show.  In Blacksburg, I’m Alan Raflo, thanking you for listening, and wishing you health, wisdom, and good water. AUDIO NOTES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS All sounds were recorded by Virginia Water Radio in Fort Valley on August 22, 2016. “Rescue Me, Virginia,” is from The Steel Wheels’ 2015 album, “Leave Some Things Behind,” used with permission.   More information about The Steel Wheels is available online at http://www.thesteelwheels.com/. PHOTOS  Passage Creek near the Front Royal Fish Hatchery Station in Warren County, Va., August 22, 2016. Fort Valley, looking north (down the valley) at Ramsey Road in Shenandoah County, Va., August 22, 2016.   Trinity Brethren Church (completed in 1904) on Dry Run Road in Shenandoah County, Va., August 22, 2016. The building is now part of the Fort Valley Museum. SOURCES USED

CLICK HERE to listen to episode audio (4:20) Transcript of audio, notes on the audio, images, and additional information follow below. All Web addresses mentioned were functional as of 8-19-16. TRANSCRIPT OF AUDIO From the Cumberland Gap to the Atlantic Ocean, this is Virginia Water Radio for the week of August 22, 2016. MUSIC - ~ 9 sec This week, that music, by an internationally acclaimed musician who called Virginia home for many years, helps us mark an important turning point in the Atlantic tropical storm season. Have a listen for about 50 seconds. MUSIC - ~49 sec You’ve been listening to part of “Natural Disaster” by John McCutcheon, on his 1998 album “Four Seasons: Autumn Songs,” from Rounder Records. Prior to moving to Atlanta in 2006, Wisconsin native John McCutcheon was a long-time resident of Charlottesville, Virginia. While “Natural Disaster” is about the whirlwind caused by the arrival of a new baby, hearing an excerpt at this time of year reminds us that we’re right in the middle of the Atlantic tropical storm season. The season officially runs from June 1 to November 30, although Atlantic tropical storms sometimes occur in other months, as well—such as 2016’s first Atlantic tropical storm, Hurricane Alex in January. But mid-August through late October is typically the most active part of the Atlantic season, according to historical records. This year, through August 18, six named tropical storms had formed in the Atlantic basin so far, including two hurricanes. In its August 11 updated season outlook, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration predicted that 2016 may turn out to be the most active Atlantic season since 2012, with forecasters asserting a 70-percent chance of a season total of 12 to 17 named storms, 5 to 8 hurricanes, and 2 to 4 major hurricanes. Unlike babies, there’s nothing cuddly about tropical storms. But just like the child in John McCutcheon’s song, tropical storms can surprise us and turn the place upside down. So with the historically most active part of the Atlantic tropical storm season upon us, stay ready for some high-impact arrivals. Thanks to Mr. McCutcheon and Appalseed Productions for permission to use this week’s music, and we close with few more seconds of “Natural Disaster.” MUSIC - ~ 13 sec SHIP’S BELL For more Virginia water sounds, music, and information, visit us online at virginiawaterradio.org, or call us at (540) 231-5463. Virginia Water Radio is produced by the Virginia Water Resources Research Center, part of Virginia Tech’s College of Natural Resources and Environment. Thanks to Stewart Scales for his banjo version of Cripple Creek to open and close the show. In Blacksburg, I’m Alan Raflo, thanking you for listening, and wishing you health, wisdom, and good water. AUDIO NOTES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS “Natural Disaster” and “Four Seasons: Autumn Songs” are copyright by John McCutcheon/Appalsongs and Si Kahn/Joe Hill Music, used with permission of Appalseed Productions. More information about John McCutcheon is available from his Web site, http://www.folkmusic.com/. This episode is a revision of Episode 226 (8-11-14), which has been archived. IMAGES NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) graph showing the predicted number of Atlantic tropical storms in 100 years, based on historical records. The NOAA caption states, “As seen in the graph above, the peak of the season is from mid-August to late October. However, deadly hurricanes can occur anytime in the hurricane season.” Graph accessed at National Hurricane Center Web site, “Tropical Cyclone Climatology,” online at http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/climo/. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) mid-season update on the outlook for the 2016 Atlantic tropical storm season, as of August 11, 2016. Graphic accessed at http://www.noaa.gov/media-release/atlantic-hurricane-season-still-expected-to-be-strongest-since-2012. SOURCES Used for Audio National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),

CLICK HERE to listen to episode audio (3:55) Transcript of audio, notes on the audio, images, and additional information follow below. All Web addresses mentioned were functional as of 8-12-16. TRANSCRIPT OF AUDIO From the Cumberland Gap to the Atlantic Ocean, this is Virginia Water Radio for the week of August 15, 2016. SOUND – ~ 5 sec This week, that clatter of calls introduces a family of birds known for forked tails, tricky flying, and insect feeding. Have a listen for about 40 seconds to sounds from three species, and see if you can guess this bird family. And here’s a hint: if you get the right answer, you won’t have to do THIS to a bitter pill or your pride. SOUNDS - ~41 sec If you guessed swallows, you’re right! You heard a Bank Swallow, Cliff Swallow, and Tree Swallow, and the episode’s opening sound was a colony of Bank Swallows. Out of eight North American species of swallows, six species are summer breeders in Virginia: the three you heard, plus the Northern Rough-winged Swallow, the Purple Martin, and—perhaps the most familiar—the Barn Swallow, known for building mud nests in human structures. As a group, swallows are distinctive for their habit of flying fast over land or water to catch insects in their wide-opening beaks. Flying swallows can also be seen dipping their beaks into water to drink. Water habitats are important for several swallow species, such as Bank Swallows and Northern Rough-winged Swallows nesting in streambanks, and Cliff Swallows building mud nests near rivers, lakes, or wetlands. Several swallow species are also noted for gathering in large groups, either in nesting colonies, migrating flocks, or non-breeding roosting flocks. Swallows are a dynamic part of Virginia’s summer air-space; look for these insect-eating aerialists near water, meadows, barns, bridges, and bird boxes. Thanks to the Macaulay Library at the Cornell Lab of Ornithology for permission to use this week’s sounds, and we close with the sound of a Cliff Swallow colony, recorded in 2006 along the Kanuti River in Alaska. SOUND - ~ 10 sec SHIP’S BELL For more Virginia water sounds, music, and information, visit us online at virginiawaterradio.org, or call us at (540) 231-5463. Virginia Water Radio is produced by the Virginia Water Resources Research Center, part of Virginia Tech’s College of Natural Resources and Environment. Thanks to Stewart Scales for his banjo version of Cripple Creek to open and close the show. In Blacksburg, I’m Alan Raflo, thanking you for listening, and wishing you health, wisdom, and good water. AUDIO NOTES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This episode’s bird sounds were provided by the Macaulay Library at the Cornell Lab of Ornithology (online at http://macaulaylibrary.org/), used with permission. The original recordings were as follows: Bank Swallow colony, catalog number 94971 - recorded by Matthew D. Medler, June 1998, in Tompkins County, New York; Bank Swallow individual, catalog number 106597 – recorded by Randolph S. Little, May 1994, near Frenchglen, Oregon; Cliff Swallow individual, catalog number 111063 – recorded by Thomas G. Sander, May 1988, in Marin County, California; Tree Swallow individual, catalog number 89769 – recorded by Amanda Westervelt, May 1998, in Tomkins County, New York; Cliff Swallow colony, catalog number 130281 – recorded by Michael J. Andersen and Gerrit Vyn, June 2006, in Yukon-Koyukuk County, Alaska. Thanks to Matthew Young of the Macaulay Library for his help in providing the sound files used in this episode. PHOTOS Tree Swallow in William L. Finley National Wildlife Refuge in Oregon, March 2009. Photo by George Gentry, made available for public use by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library, online at http://digitalmedia.fws.gov. Barn Swallow in Oregon, June 2012. Photo by Lee Karney, made available for public use by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library, online at http://digitalmedia.fws.gov. SWALLOWS IN VIRGINIA  According to

CLICK HERE to listen to episode audio (4:41) Transcript of audio, notes on the audio, images, and additional information follow below. All Web addresses mentioned were functional as of 8-5-16. TRANSCRIPT OF AUDIO From the Cumberland Gap to the Atlantic Ocean, this is Virginia Water Radio for the week of August 8, 2016. MUSIC – ~ 9 sec This week, music by a Harrisonburg, Va.-based band helps deliver a message about flash flooding, one of the most dangerous kinds of weather-related disasters. Have a listen for about 40 seconds. MUSIC - ~ 42 sec You’ve been listening to part of “Rain in the Valley,” by The Steel Wheels, from their 2012 album, “Lay Down, Lay Low.” According to the song’s composer, the lyrics were inspired by a friend’s experience of a flash flood in Virginia’s Shenandoah Valley. Fortunately, that friend lived to tell the tale, because flash floods all too frequently have tragic consequences, including very recently in West Virginia in June 2016 and in Ellicott City, Maryland, on July 30, 2016. According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, floods in general are the most common weather-related disaster, and flash floods are the most dangerous kind of floods because they combine the destructive power, incredible speed, and unpredictability. Flash floods typically occur when intense rainfall causes rapid water rises in waterways or even in normally dry channels. Some flash-flood risk areas include low spots in urban areas; steep terrain, particularly if recently burned or otherwise unvegetated; recreation areas along streams or rivers; low-water crossings; areas subject to ice jams or rapid snowmelt; and areas behind river levees or below dams, which, unfortunately, sometimes fail. Wherever you are, if you receive a National Weather Service flash flood watch, be alert to possible flash flooding within the designated watch area; and if you receive a flash flood warning, take necessary precautions at once, because flash flooding has been reported or is imminent. Among the most important precautions are the following: if you receive a warning, head for higher ground; stay away from floodwaters; avoid walking or driving through flowing water; if water is rising around your vehicle, get out of the car and move to higher ground; and avoid camping or parking along streams or rivers during the warning period. More details on flash floods or other floods are available from the Virginia Department of Emergency Management, online at readyvirginia.gov. Thanks to The Steel Wheels for permission to use this week’s music, and we close with a few more seconds of “Rain in the Valley.” MUSIC - ~ 15 sec SHIP’S BELL For more Virginia water sounds, music, and information, visit us online at virginiawaterradio.org, or call us at (540) 231-5463. Virginia Water Radio is produced by the Virginia Water Resources Research Center, part of Virginia Tech’s College of Natural Resources and Environment. Thanks to Stewart Scales for his banjo version of Cripple Creek to open and close the show. In Blacksburg, I’m Alan Raflo, thanking you for listening, and wishing you health, wisdom, and good water. AUDIO NOTES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This week’s music, “Rain in the Valley,” written by Trent Wagler, is from The Steel Wheels’ 2012 album, “Lay Down, Lay Low,” used with permission. Information on the song’s background was taken from Songfacts, “Rain in the Valley by The Steel Wheels,” undated, online at http://www.songfacts.com/detail.php?id=29969. IMAGES Above: Floods caused the highest number of weather-related fatalities in the United States in 2015, and the second-highest number over the past 30 years. Image from National Weather Service/Office of Climate, Water, and Weather Services, “Natural Hazard Statistics,” online at http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/hazstats.shtml. An example of how quickly small streams can rise and fall. Above: Stroubles Creek after heavy rain on the Virginia Tech campus, September 29, 2015, 12:30 p.m. Below: The

CLICK HERE to listen to episode audio (3:53) Transcript of audio, notes on the audio, photos, and additional information follow below. All Web addresses mentioned were functional as of 7-29-16. TRANSCRIPT OF AUDIO From the Cumberland Gap to the Atlantic Ocean, this is Virginia Water Radio for the week of August 1, 2016. SOUND – ~ 6 sec This week, we follow the sounds of sloshing, squishing steps on midsummer exploration of a freshwater wetland in Blacksburg, Virginia. Have a listen for about 45 seconds to imagine the scene and see how many different sounds you can detect. SOUNDS - ~46 sec Insects, frogs, birds, gas bubbles in water, plants, people, and many more things made noises on July 27, 2016, in an area near a small, spring-fed stream and a pond formed by a dam of that stream. The area, dominated by cattails, is a streamside wet meadow, one kind of wetland. Wetlands are a diverse group of habitats, typically found in areas of transition between water bodies and normally dry uplands. Historically, wetlands were often considered obstacles to travel, navigation, or development, but they are now recognized for providing many ecological and hydrological functions, including water storage, groundwater recharge, erosion reduction, sediment trapping, nutrient uptake, and wildlife habitat. Four main classes of wetlands are marshes, swamps, bogs, and fens, but there’s great variety within those groups. Wetlands specialists determine whether a given area is, in fact, a wetland on the basis of the area’s soils, plants, and hydrologic conditions. Such determinations—sometimes controversial and legally debated—are a key part of wetlands regulation required by the federal Clean Water Act and by various state laws. We close with medley of animal sounds you might hear in a Virginia wetland. As you listen, try this riddle: what do the names of Poquoson, Virginia, and Fenway Park in Boston have in common? [Both names derive from types of wetlands originally found in the area: pocosins in southeastern Virginia and fens in coastal Massachusetts.] SOUNDS - ~ 10 sec – Red-winged Blackbird, Gray Treefrog, Deer Fly, and Mallards SHIP’S BELL For more Virginia water sounds, music, and information, visit us online at virginiawaterradio.org, or call us at (540) 231-5463. Virginia Water Radio is produced by the Virginia Water Resources Research Center, part of Virginia Tech’s College of Natural Resources and Environment. Thanks to Stewart Scales for his banjo version of Cripple Creek to open and close the show. In Blacksburg, I’m Alan Raflo, thanking you for listening, and wishing you health, wisdom, and good water. AUDIO NOTES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This episode is based on July 27, 2016, walk in a wet meadow wetland in Heritage Park in Blacksburg, Virginia. The wetland is in the basin of Toms Creek, a tributary of the New River. Most sounds heard in this episode were recorded then and there, but the episode-closing sounds were recorded at other Blacksburg locations at various times. PHOTOS Shown below are some of the plants seen during a July 27, 2016, wetland walk in Heritage Park in Blacksburg, Va. Thanks to Tom Wieboldt, Virginia Tech Department of Biological Sciences, for identifying several of these plants.   Cattail (Typha species) Green Bulrush (Scirpus atrovirens) Swamp Milkweed (Asclepias incarnata) Common Boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum) EXTRA FACTS ABOUT WETLANDS Quoted from the sources indicated; bolding added by Virginia Water Radio. From the Chesapeake Bay Program, “Wetlands,” online at http://www.chesapeakebay.net/issues/issue/wetlands : “A wetland is defined by its soils and vegetation. Some wetlands may be saturated with water throughout the year, while others are not always visibly wet. All wetlands are dominated by “hydrophytes”—plants that are adapted for life in wet soils—and have hydric soils, meaning they are periodically saturated or flooded. “Two broad categories of wetlands are found in the Chesapeake Bay watershed: Ti

CLICK HERE to listen to episode audio (4:16) Transcript of audio, notes on the audio, images, and additional information follow below. All Web addresses mentioned were functional as of 7-22-16. TRANSCRIPT OF AUDIO From the Cumberland Gap to the Atlantic Ocean, this is Virginia Water Radio for the week of July 25, 2016 MUSIC - ~ 3 sec This week, we revisit a July 2012 episode that features some rap and some rhyme about a particular kind of aquatic ecosystem that’s vital to coastal areas worldwide. Have a listen for about 75 seconds. MUSIC/VOICES - ~ 73 sec You’ve been listening to excerpts from two estuary education videos from the National Estuarine Research Reserve System. As you heard, an estuary is formed when freshwater rivers mix with saltier coastal water. Many estuaries are formed from a coastal plain river meeting the sea. But estuaries can form in other ways, too, such as within barrier islands like Virginia and North Carolina’s Outer Banks; by earthquake activity, which created the San Francisco Bay estuary; and from glaciers, which form a type of estuary called a fjord. While estuaries are usually thought of as brackish—that is, having freshwater mixed with salt water—some estuaries are completely freshwater, such as those on the Great Lakes where river water and lake water are mixed by winds. However and wherever they form, estuaries typically result in biologically productive ecosystems, including important reproduction areas for fish and shellfish. Virginia borders a famous example: the Chesapeake Bay, the largest estuary in the United States. Other estuaries in Virginia include the lower, tidally influenced sections of the Potomac, York, and other large river tributaries to the Chesapeake, as well as Back Bay in Virginia Beach, the northernmost part of North Carolina’s Albemarle-Pamlico estuary. Beyond our Commonwealth, many of the world’s largest cities grew up around estuaries, including New York City and Tokyo. So for many millions of humans and countless other organisms, estuaries are among our most valuable and vital habitats. SHIP’S BELL For more Virginia water sounds, music, and information, visit us online at virginiawaterradio.org, or call us at (540) 231-5463. Virginia Water Radio is produced by the Virginia Water Resources Research Center, part of Virginia Tech’s College of Natural Resources and Environment. Thanks to Stewart Scales for his banjo version of Cripple Creek to open and close the show. In Blacksburg, I’m Alan Raflo, thanking you for listening, and wishing you health, wisdom, and good water. AUDIO NOTES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This week’s music and voices were excerpted from online videos “Estuary Rap” (4 minutes/44 seconds; 2002) and “So What is an Estuary—So Now You Know,” (7 minutes/2 seconds; 2003), provided for educational uses by the National Estuarine Research Reserve System (part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, or NOAA). These videos were accessed on the System’s “Estuary Education” Web site, http://estuaries.noaa.gov/Default.aspx. The site includes which includes a gallery of dozens of videos and many other resources for learning and teaching about estuaries. This episode is a revision of Episode 120 (7-23-12), which has been archived. PHOTOS Chesapeake Bay Virginia National Estuarine Research Reserve, Taskinas Creek area in York River watersed. Photo undated; taken by April Bahen, made available for public use by the NOAA Photo Library (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/U.S. Department of Commerce; photo nerr0184), accessed online at http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/index.html, 7/22/16. North Inlet-Winyah Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve near Georgetown, South Carolina. Photo taken October 28, 2010, made available for public use by the NOAA Photo Library (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/U.S. Department of Commerce; photo nerr0315), accessed online at http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/index.html, 7/22/16. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION The

CLICK HERE to listen to episode audio (4:20) Transcript of audio, notes on the audio, images, and additional information follow below. All Web addresses mentioned were functional as of 7-15-16. TRANSCRIPT OF AUDIO From the Cumberland Gap to the Atlantic Ocean, this is Virginia Water Radio for the week of July 18, 2016. SOUND - ~ 4 sec That’s the sound of an underwater recording in a river in the Chesapeake Bay watershed.   If you were under a few feet of water in the Bay or one of its river tributaries, what aquatic vegetation might you find submerged there?  This week, 16 Virginia high school students give us a quick lesson on that subject.  Have a listen for about 25 seconds. VOICES - ~25 sec Males: American Pondweed! Curly Pondweed! Females: Horned Pondweed! Sago Pondweed! Slender Pondweed! Males: Eelgrass! Muskgrass! Redhead Grass! Females: Water Stargrass! Widgeon Grass! Males: Common Waterweed! Hornwort! Females: Wild Celery! Southern Naiad! You’ve been listening to the names of 14 kinds of submerged aquatic vegetation found in the Chesapeake Bay watershed.  The names were shouted out by students from Achievable Dream High School, located in Newport News, Virginia, during the students’ two-week visit in July 2016 to Virginia Tech in Blacksburg.  Submerged aquatic vegetation, or SAV, is the formal name for plants and plant-like organisms that grow underwater in areas shallow enough that light can penetrate to the bottom.  In the Chesapeake Bay region, between about 15 and 25 such organisms are common or are otherwise ecologically significant, and collectively they’re often called Bay grasses.  Despite that common name, none actually are grasses; that is, they’re not classified in the grass family of plants.  Some—like Muskgrass—aren’t even plants, but rather are algae, which are not classified as true plants. Those confusing details aside, there’s no confusion about the ecological importance of Bay grasses.  They’re a major source of food for waterfowl, as seen in names like Redhead Grass and Widgeon Grass; they provide habitat for fish, crustaceans like Blue Crabs, and other organisms; their leaves and roots harbor food sources for many animals; and they improve water quality by stabilizing sediments, taking up nutrients, and producing oxygen.  For all of these reasons, the extent of Bay grasses is an annually measured indicator of the Chesapeake’s overall health. In 2015, the Virginia Institute of Marine Science’ annual aerial survey reported 91,000 acres [Editor’s note: actually, over 91,600 acres were measured in 2015], a significant improvement over the record low of about 39,000 acres in 1984. One goal of Chesapeake Bay-restoration efforts is to have 185,000 acres of Bay grasses.  That, and other challenging Bay-restoration goals, will take a lot of work.  But it’s not hard to imagine some of that work being done a few years from now by one or more of the Achievable Dream High School students you heard this week, who are already working to achieve their own challenging goals.  Thanks to those students for lending their voices to this episode. SHIP’S BELL For more Virginia water sounds, music, and information, visit us online at virginiawaterradio.org, or call us at (540) 231-5463.  Virginia Water Radio is produced by the Virginia Water Resources Research Center, part of Virginia Tech’s College of Natural Resources and Environment.  Thanks to Stewart Scales for his banjo version of Cripple Creek to open and close the show.  In Blacksburg, I’m Alan Raflo, thanking you for listening, and wishing you health, wisdom, and good water. AUDIO NOTES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks to students and teachers in Achievable Dream High School in Newport News, Va., for their participation in this episode. The students who called out names of Chesapeake Bay submerged aquatic plants were the following: Kameren Bluiett Cassie Broadhead Richard Cotman III Anast