Wired to be Weird

Lucas Cranach - Der Jungbrunnen (The Fountain of Youth), 1564 (Wikimedia Commons)

Bo and I discuss some of the leading candidates for extending both human lifespan and “health-span”, including metformin, nicotinamide riboside & nicotinamide mononucleotide, and caloric restriction. We also chat about some of the companies working in this area, as well as novel business models that may or may not be a strategy to enable rigorous research of something as difficult to study as human lifespan.

References:

Longevity References

1.      Bridgeman SC, Ellison GC, Melton PE, Newsholme P, Mamotte CDS. Epigenetic effects of metformin: From molecular mechanisms to clinical implications. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2018 Jul;20(7):1553-1562. doi: 10.1111/dom.13262. Epub 2018 Mar 22. Review. PubMed PMID: 29457866.

2.      Qian M, Liu B. Pharmaceutical Intervention of Aging. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2018;1086:235-254. doi: 10.1007/978-981-13-1117-8_15. PubMed PMID: 30232763.

3.      Yoshino J, Baur JA, Imai SI. NAD+ Intermediates: The Biology and Therapeutic Potential of NMN and NR. Cell Metab. 2018 Mar 6;27(3):513-528. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2017.11.002. Epub 2017 Dec 14. Review. PubMed PMID: 29249689; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC5842119.

4.      2017 Karen Weintraub, Medium - The life extension death match: https://medium.com/neodotlife/elysium-and-basis-vs-chromadex-and-tru-niagen-10264fca0bdb

5.      2018 Karen Weintraub, Medium - More on the supposed youth pill (NR): https://medium.com/neodotlife/nr-chromadex-niagen-elysium-basis-blood-pressure-study-cd1b383ccea

6.      2017 Karen Weintraub, MIT Technology Review - Critics Blast Star-Studded Advisory Board of Anti-Aging Company: https://www.technologyreview.com/s/603199/critics-blast-star-studded-advisory-board-of-anti-aging-company/

7.      2019 Alzforum - In small trial, EH301 (Elysium's Basis) Appears to Halt Progression of ALS: https://www.alzforum.org/news/research-news/small-trial-eh301-appears-halt-progression-als

8.      2019 Feb 17 - Marisa Taylor, Kaiser Health News - A pill to reverse aging; Enthusiasm outpaces reality: https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/pill-reverse-aging-enthusiasm-outpaces-reality-n971616

9.      2016 Sarah Zhang, WIRED – The Weird Business Behind A Trendy “Anti-Aging” Pill: https://www.wired.com/2016/07/confused-elysiums-anti-aging-drug-yeah-fda/

10.   Konopka AR, Miller BF. Taming expectations of metformin as a treatment to extend healthspan. Geroscience. 2019 Feb 12;. doi: 10.1007/s11357-019-00057-3. [Epub ahead of print] Review. PubMed PMID: 30746605.

11.   Piskovatska V, Stefanyshyn N, Storey KB, Vaiserman AM, Lushchak O. Metformin as a geroprotector: experimental and clinical evidence. Biogerontology. 2019 Feb;20(1):33-48. doi: 10.1007/s10522-018-9773-5. Epub 2018 Sep 25. Review. PubMed PMID: 30255224.

12.   Zhou G, Myers R, Li Y, Chen Y, Shen X, Fenyk-Melody J, Wu M, Ventre J, Doebber T, Fujii N, Musi N, Hirshman MF, Goodyear LJ, Moller DE. Role of AMP-activated protein kinase in mechanism of metformin action. J Clin Invest. 2001 Oct;108(8):1167-74. doi: 10.1172/JCI13505. PubMed PMID: 11602624; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC209533.

13.   Witters LA. The blooming of the French lilac. J Clin Invest. 2001 Oct;108(8):1105-7. doi: 10.1172/JCI14178. Review. PubMed PMID: 11602616; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC209536.

14.   Stein LR, Imai S. The dynamic regulation of NAD metabolism in mitochondria. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2012 Sep;23(9):420-8. doi: 10.1016/j.tem.2012.06.005. Epub 2012 Jul 21. PubMed PMID: 22819213; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3683958.

15.   Aravinthan A. Cellular senescence: a hitchhiker's guide. Hum Cell. 2015 Apr;28(2):51-64. doi: 10.1007/s13577-015-0110-x. Epub 2015 Feb 18. Review. PubMed PMID: 25690721.

16.   2015 David Stipp, Scientific American Guest Blog - Beyond Resveratrol: The Anti-Aging NAD Fad: https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/beyond-resveratrol-the-anti-aging-nad-fad/

17.   2015 Jessica Leber, Fast Company - One Of The World’s Top Aging Researchers Has A Pill To Keep You Feeling Young: https://www.fastcompany.com/3041800/one-of-the-worlds-top-aging-researchers-has-a-pill-to-keep-you-feeling-young

18.   2015 Karen Weintraub, MIT Technology Review - The Anti-Aging Pill: https://www.technologyreview.com/s/534636/the-anti-aging-pill/

19.   2015 Stefanie Friedhoff, Boston Globe - Five Nobel laureates backing antiaging dietary supplement: https://www.bostonglobe.com/business/2015/02/03/anti-aging-supplement-from-prominent-local-scientists/FvHsy28Hd9fILmrR4OZArO/story.html

20.   Barzilai N, Crandall JP, Kritchevsky SB, Espeland MA. Metformin as a Tool to Target Aging. Cell Metab. 2016 Jun 14;23(6):1060-1065. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2016.05.011. Review. PubMed PMID: 27304507; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC5943638.

21.   2017 Marina N. Bolotnikova, Harvard Magazine – Anti-Aging Approaches: https://www.harvardmagazine.com/2017/09/anti-aging-breakthrough

22.    Bridgeman SC, Ellison GC, Melton PE, Newsholme P, Mamotte CDS. Epigenetic effects of metformin: From molecular mechanisms to clinical implications. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2018 Jul;20(7):1553-1562. doi: 10.1111/dom.13262. Epub 2018 Mar 22. Review. PubMed PMID: 29457866.

23.   Semba RD, Ferrucci L, Bartali B, Urpí-Sarda M, Zamora-Ros R, Sun K, Cherubini A, Bandinelli S, Andres-Lacueva C. Resveratrol levels and all-cause mortality in older community-dwelling adults. JAMA Intern Med. 2014 Jul;174(7):1077-84. doi: 10.1001/jamainternmed.2014.1582. PubMed PMID: 24819981; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4346286.

24.   Campbell JM, Bellman SM, Stephenson MD, Lisy K. Metformin reduces all-cause mortality and diseases of ageing independent of its effect on diabetes control: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ageing Res Rev. 2017 Nov;40:31-44. doi: 10.1016/j.arr.2017.08.003. Epub 2017 Aug 10. Review. PubMed PMID: 28802803.

25.   2017 Jeffrey S. Flier, Boston Globe – Dietary supplements: Nobel or ignoble: https://www.bostonglobe.com/opinion/2017/03/30/dietary-supplements-nobel-ignoble/e5E6Cklw3RxlExEtGJe6mL/story.html

26.   Romero R, Erez O, Hüttemann M, Maymon E, Panaitescu B, Conde-Agudelo A, Pacora P, Yoon BH, Grossman LI. Metformin, the aspirin of the 21st century: its role in gestational diabetes mellitus, prevention of preeclampsia and cancer, and the promotion of longevity. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2017 Sep;217(3):282-302. doi: 10.1016/j.ajog.2017.06.003. Epub 2017 Jun 12. Review. PubMed PMID: 28619690; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC6084482.

27.   Cuyàs E, Verdura S, Llorach-Parés L, Fernández-Arroyo S, Joven J, Martin-Castillo B, Bosch-Barrera J, Brunet J, Nonell-Canals A, Sanchez-Martinez M, Menendez JA. Metformin Is a Direct SIRT1-Activating Compound: Computational Modeling and Experimental Validation. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2018;9:657. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2018.00657. eCollection 2018. PubMed PMID: 30459716; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC6232372.

28.   Cuyàs E, Fernández-Arroyo S, Verdura S, García RÁ, Stursa J, Werner L, Blanco-González E, Montes-Bayón M, Joven J, Viollet B, Neuzil J, Menendez JA. Metformin regulates global DNA methylation via mitochondrial one-carbon metabolism. Oncogene. 2018 Feb 15;37(7):963-970. doi: 10.1038/onc.2017.367. Epub 2017 Oct 23. PubMed PMID: 29059169.

29.   2018 Grand View Research - Dietary Supplements Market Size Worth $278.02 Billion By 2024: https://www.grandviewresearch.com/press-release/global-dietary-supplements-market

30.   2018 Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health - Cost of Clinical Trials for New Drug FDA Approval Are Fraction of Total Tab: https://www.jhsph.edu/news/news-releases/2018/cost-of-clinical-trials-for-new-drug-FDA-approval-are-fraction-of-total-tab.html

31.   Klimova B, Novotny M, Kuca K. Anti-Aging Drugs - Prospect of Longer Life?. Curr Med Chem. 2018;25(17):1946-1953. doi: 10.2174/0929867325666171129215251. Review. PubMed PMID: 29189123.

32.   Li YR, Li S, Lin CC. Effect of resveratrol and pterostilbene on aging and longevity. Biofactors. 2018 Jan;44(1):69-82. doi: 10.1002/biof.1400. Epub 2017 Dec 6. Review. PubMed PMID: 29210129.

33.   Mitchell SJ, Bernier M, Aon MA, Cortassa S, Kim EY, Fang EF, Palacios HH, Ali A, Navas-Enamorado I, Di Francesco A, Kaiser TA, Waltz TB, Zhang N, Ellis JL, Elliott PJ, Frederick DW, Bohr VA, Schmidt MS, Brenner C, Sinclair DA, Sauve AA, Baur JA, de Cabo R. Nicotinamide Improves Aspects of Healthspan, but Not Lifespan, in Mice. Cell Metab. 2018 Mar 6;27(3):667-676.e4. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2018.02.001. PubMed PMID: 29514072; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC5854409.

34.   Lee SH, Lee JH, Lee HY, Min KJ. Sirtuin signaling in cellular senescence and aging. BMB Rep. 2019 Jan;52(1):24-34. Review. PubMed PMID: 30526767; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC6386230.

How does the environment of a pregnant woman affect the development of a fetus? What about the experiences of the pregnant woman? We discuss some research regarding how certain factors like diet, airborne pollution, stress, and sleep patterns influence the brain development of a fetus - as well as some speculative measures expecting parents might take to minimize these potential risks

References:

1. Borge TC, Aase H, Brantsæter AL, Biele G. The importance of maternal diet quality during pregnancy on cognitive and behavioural outcomes in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open. 2017 Sep 24;7(9):e016777. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2017-016777. Review. PubMed PMID: 28947450; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC5623570.

2. Pearson BL, Simon JM, McCoy ES, Salazar G, Fragola G, Zylka MJ. Identification of chemicals that mimic transcriptional changes associated with autism, brain aging and neurodegeneration. Nat Commun. 2016 Mar 31;7:11173. doi: 10.1038/ncomms11173. PubMed PMID: 27029645; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4821887.

3. Danielewicz H, Myszczyszyn G, Dębińska A, Myszkal A, Boznański A, Hirnle L. Diet in pregnancy-more than food. Eur J Pediatr. 2017 Dec;176(12):1573-1579. doi: 10.1007/s00431-017-3026-5. Epub 2017 Nov 3. Review. PubMed PMID: 29101450; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC5682869.

4. Zhou H, Li W, Ren Y. Poor sleep quality of third trimester exacerbates the risk of experiencing postnatal depression. Psychol Health Med. 2018 Nov 17:1-10. doi: 10.1080/13548506.2018.1549738. [Epub ahead of print] PubMed PMID: 30450954.

5. Chen G, Jin Z, Li S, Jin X, Tong S, Liu S, Yang Y, Huang H, Guo Y. Early life exposure to particulate matter air pollution (PM1, PM2.5 and PM10) and autism in Shanghai, China: A case-control study. Environ Int. 2018 Dec;121(Pt 2):1121-1127. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.10.026. Epub 2018 Nov 5. PubMed PMID: 30409451.

In preparation for the upcoming mid-term elections in the United States (REMEMBER TO VOTE ON NOVEMBER 6TH !), Bo and I chat about how much of a person’s politics are inherited genetically from their parents, as well as some companies that are entirely devoted to trying to make you vote in a certain way. I learned quite a bit prepping for this conversation, and suffice it to say that I was pretty surprised with what I learned.

Note about the recording: if you can’t tell, we’re using a new audio set-up (thank you Patreon & Twitter supporters!!!). While we have gotten rid of some of the ambient noise – at least as much noise as you can in a Philly apartment – we’re clearly lacking pop-filters on this recording. So, apologies for the heavy Ps and Bs on this one; a pop-filter has been ordered, and I tried to edit out the worst of them.

References

1. Kandler C, Bleidorn W, Riemann R. Left or right? Sources of political orientation: the roles of genetic factors, cultural transmission, assortative mating, and personality. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2012 Mar;102(3):633-45. doi: 10.1037/a0025560. Epub 2011 Oct 10. PubMed PMID: 21988277.

2. Friesen A, Ksiazkiewicz A. Do Political Attitudes and Religiosity Share a Genetic Path?. Political Behavior, 1–28. doi:10.1007/s11109-014-9291-3

3. "The Genes of Left and Right" in SA Mind 27, 3, 9-10 (May 2016) doi:10.1038/scientificamericanmind0516-9

4. Kornadt AE, Hufer A, Kandler C, Riemann R. On the genetic and environmental sources of social and political participation in adolescence and early adulthood. PLoS One. 2018 Aug 24;13(8):e0202518. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0202518. eCollection 2018. PubMed PMID: 30142159; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC6108469.

5. K. Randall, “Neuropolitics, Where Campaigns Try to Read Your Mind,” The New York Times, 21-Dec-2017. [Online]. Available: https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/04/world/americas/neuropolitics-where-campaigns-try-to-read-your-mind.html. [Accessed: 06-Apr-2019]

M.C. Escher, Circle Limit IV. From Wikimedia: https www.wikiart org:en:m-c-escher:circle-limit-iv

Participants of the SPE

One example of the prisoner abuse at Abu Ghraib

Bo and I discuss a debate that's existed in science for...what seems like forever. Is everyone capable of the types of atrocities that occurred throughout history, like the prisoner abuse at Abu Ghraib? Philip Zimbardo, the primary researcher who led the Stanford Prison Experiment, posted a defense of his study, and we use it as a framework to discuss what we know - and, more importantly - don't know about human behavioral predispositions.

We also updated our recording set-up, so I hope you'll excuse any audio weirdness as we go through growing pains.

Literature referenced:

1. LUIGI BARZINI, author of “The Italians”; ROME. (1973, March 25). How Pirandello Became Pirandellian (And Other Things). Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/1973/03/25/archives/how-pirandello-became-pirandellian-and-other-things-barzini-on.html
2. Heirs of Pirandello. (1999, March 10). Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/1999/mar/10/features11.g26
3. Philip Zimbardo's Response to Recent Criticisms of the Stanford Prison Experiment. (n.d.). Retrieved August/September, 2018, from http://www.prisonexp.org/response/
4. Haney, C., Banks, C., & Zimbardo, P. (1973). Interpersonal Dynamics in a Simulated Prison Study, circa 1973. Retrieved August/September, 2018, from https://exhibits.stanford.edu/spe/catalog/fb081wn8980
5. Zimbardo, P. (2008, September). Retrieved August/September, 2018, from https://www.ted.com/talks/philip_zimbardo_on_the_psychology_of_evil?language=en
6. Stanford Prison Experiment: Prisoner 8612's Emotional Breakdown. (2018, June 26). Retrieved August/September, 2018, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kXOM8IK4HOs

Today, Bo and I chatted about two of the most widely known studies of human behavior in modern history - the Marshmallow Test and the Stanford Prisoner Experiment. New data and interviews have emerged that fundamentally redefine how we ought to interpret these classic studies. Also, we discuss whether kids have been getting better or worse at delaying gratification since the 1960s. It's a fun conversation, and we hope you enjoy!

Another multi-topic episode. We discuss the recent approval of a new treatment for migraines, then some evidence suggesting a certain kind of exercise may be therapeutic for Alzheimer's disease, and finally some work that suggests there may be universal & cross-cultural features of music. We open, however, on the debate between the Laurel & Yanni people.

Sources of 14 second music clips and their categories. From: Mehr, S. A., Singh, M., York, H. W., Glowacki, L., & Krasnow. M. M. (2018). Form and function in human song [cover article]. Current Biology, 28(3), 356–368.e5.

Countries from which listeners of the clips originated. From: Mehr, S. A., Singh, M., York, H. W., Glowacki, L., & Krasnow. M. M. (2018). Form and function in human song [cover article]. Current Biology, 28(3), 356–368.e5.

Literature referenced:

1. Edvinsson L, Warfvinge K. Recognizing the role of CGRP and CGRP receptors in migraine and its treatment. Cephalalgia. 2017 Jan 1:333102417736900. doi: 10.1177/0333102417736900. [Epub ahead of print] PubMed PMID: 29020807.

2. Edvinsson L. The CGRP Pathway in Migraine as a Viable Target for Therapies. Headache. 2018 May;58 Suppl 1:33-47. doi: 10.1111/head.13305. PubMed PMID: 29697153.

3. Raffaelli B, Reuter U. The Biology of Monoclonal Antibodies: Focus on Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide for Prophylactic Migraine Therapy. Neurotherapeutics. 2018 Apr;15(2):324-335. doi: 10.1007/s13311-018-0622-7. Review. PubMed PMID: 29616494; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC5935651.

4. Scheer, Steven. “Teva Hopes to Launch Migraine Drug as Soon as September.” CNBC, CNBC, 23 May 2018, www.cnbc.com/2018/05/23/reuters-america-update-1-teva-hopes-to-launch-migraine-drug-as-soon-as-september.html.

5. Office of Communications and Public Liaison. “Headache: Hope Through Research.”National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 22 May 2018, www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/Patient-Caregiver-Education/Hope-Through-Research/Headache-Hope-Through-Research.

6. Mayo Clinic Staff. “Dementia.” Mayo Clinic, Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 2 Aug. 2017, www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/dementia/symptoms-causes/syc-20352013.

7. Marshall, Alex. “Can You Tell a Lullaby From a Love Song? Find Out Now.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 25 Jan. 2018, www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/01/25/arts/music/history-of-song.html.

8. Mehr SA, Singh M, York H, Glowacki L, Krasnow MM. Form and Function in Human Song. Curr Biol. 2018 Feb 5;28(3):356-368.e5. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2017.12.042. Epub 2018 Jan 25. PubMed PMID: 29395919; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC5805477.

9. Original Laurel / Yanny tweet

10. Laurel / Yanny pitch shifting

Bo and I discuss the evidence that supports and refutes a role played by pheromones in guiding human attraction - as well as a potential role played by the immune system in making some people more attractive than others, guiding human attraction and even human evolution.

Literature Cited:

1. Wedekind C, Füri S. Body odour preferences in men and women: do they aim for specific MHC combinations or simply heterozygosity? Proc Biol Sci. 1997 Oct 22;264(1387):1471-9. PubMed PMID: 9364787; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC1688704.
2. Bhutta MF. Sex and the nose: human pheromonal responses. J R Soc Med. 2007 Jun;100(6):268-74. Review. PubMed PMID: 17541097; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC1885393.
3. Consuegra S, Garcia de Leaniz C. MHC-mediated mate choice increases parasite resistance in salmon. Proc Biol Sci. 2008 Jun 22;275(1641):1397-403. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2008.0066. PubMed PMID: 18364312; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC2602703.
4. Havlicek J, Roberts SC. MHC-correlated mate choice in humans: a review. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2009 May;34(4):497-512. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.10.007. Epub 2008 Dec 2. Review. PubMed PMID: 19054623.
5. de Groot JHB, Smeets MAM. Human Fear Chemosignaling: Evidence from a Meta-Analysis. Chem Senses. 2017 Oct 1;42(8):663-673. doi: 10.1093/chemse/bjx049. PubMed PMID: 28981822.
6. Hare RM, Schlatter S, Rhodes G, Simmons LW. Putative sex-specific human pheromones do not affect gender perception, attractiveness ratings or unfaithfulness judgements of opposite sex faces. R Soc Open Sci. 2017 Mar 8;4(3):160831. doi: 10.1098/rsos.160831. eCollection 2017 Mar. PubMed PMID: 28405372; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC5383829.
7. Tan R, Goldman MS. Exposure to male sexual scents (androstenone) influences women's drinking. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 2017 Dec;25(6):456-465. doi: 10.1037/pha0000162. PubMed PMID: 29251974.
8. Banner A, Frumin I, Shamay-Tsoory SG. Androstadienone, a Chemosignal Found in Human Sweat, Increases Individualistic Behavior and Decreases Cooperative Responses in Men. Chem Senses. 2018 Feb 26;43(3):189-196. doi: 10.1093/chemse/bjy002. PubMed PMID: 29390162.

A discussion of a study at least partly monitored by one of Ian's college mentors that explored whether there might be a relationship between high IQ scores and psychiatric & physiological diagnoses. We then discuss a study that blew Ian's mind, showing that some cases of dyslexia may be attributable to some unique structures within the eyes. 

References:

1. Karpinski, R, Kolb, A, Tetrault, N, Borowski, T. High intelligence: A risk factor for psychological and physiological overexcitabilities. Intelligence. 2018 Jan;66:8-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2017.09.001. 

2. Le Floch A, Ropars G. Left-right asymmetry of the Maxwell spot centroids in adults without and with dyslexia. Proc Biol Sci. 2017 Oct 25;284(1865). pii: 20171380. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2017.1380. PubMed PMID: 29046375; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC5666095

Electron microscope images of the neuronal protein, Arc, forming structures that resemble those typically associated with viral capsids. From: The Neuronal Gene Arc Encodes a Repurposed Retrotransposon Gag Protein that Mediates Intercellular RNA Transfer. Pastuzyn, Elissa D. et al. Cell , Volume 172 , Issue 1 , 275 - 288.e18

If I ask you to visualize a butterfly, what kind of an experience do you have? How clearly do you see it, if you see it at all?

This is the first "NeuroByte" episode, where Bo and Ian discuss multiple topics without diving quite as deeply into the details. This week, we discuss a recent discovery that neurons appear to be capable of trading genetic material to one another, representing a novel mechanism by which neurons can communicate information to one another. Next, we discuss a poorly understood possible condition termed "aphantasia", a condition characterizing individuals who are entirely incapable of visualizing an imagined image - a population of people among whom Ian may well be counted.

Primary reading:

1. Pastuzyn ED, Day CE, Kearns RB, Kyrke-Smith M, Taibi AV, McCormick J, Yoder N, Belnap DM, Erlendsson S, Morado DR, Briggs JAG, Feschotte C, Shepherd JD. The Neuronal Gene Arc Encodes a Repurposed Retrotransposon Gag Protein that Mediates Intercellular RNA Transfer. Cell. 2018 Jan 11;172(1-2):275-288.e18. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2017.12.024. PubMed PMID: 29328916.
2. Zeman A, Dewar M, Della Sala S. Lives without imagery - Congenital aphantasia. Cortex. 2015 Dec;73:378-80. doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2015.05.019. Epub 2015 Jun 3. PubMed PMID: 26115582.

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Literature cited:

1.  Levy, N. (2013). Addiction is Not a Brain Disease (and it Matters). Frontiers in Psychiatry, 4, 24. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00024

2. Courtwright (2010). The NIDA brain disease paradigm: History, resistance and spinoffs. BioSocieties. 5, 137–147. doi:10.1057/biosoc.2009.3

3. Hall W, Carter A, Forlini C. The brain disease model of addiction: is it supported by the evidence and has it delivered on its promises? Lancet Psychiatry. 2015 Jan;2(1):105-10. doi: 10.1016/S2215-0366(14)00126-6. Epub 2015 Jan 8. PubMed PMID: 26359616.

4. Wilkerson RG, Kim HK, Windsor TA, Mareiniss DP. The Opioid Epidemic in the United States. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2016 May;34(2):e1-e23. doi: 10.1016/j.emc.2015.11.002. Epub 2016 Feb 17. Review. PubMed PMID: 27133253.

5. Hart. Viewing addiction as a brain disease promotes social injustice. Nature Human Behavior. 2017. ISSN 2397-3374 (online)

6. Hart. The Real Opioid Emergency. The New York Times. 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/18/opinion/sunday/opioids-drugs-race-treatment.html

7. Citations in progress