Writer & Geek

Note: Our friend Rupen Paul for The Right Room podcast helped us a lot in researching Robert Clive. So, go check out his podcast or find him on his socials here.

After the Battle of Plassey, the British East India Company under the leadership of Robert Clive realised that they can administer the Indian colony and expand their territories and improve their profits. This led to a series of new policies which resulted in many battles.

Battle of Buxar (23 June 1764)

Fought against the British under Major Hector Munro by Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daulah of Avadh and Shah Alam II of Mughal

Mir Qasim fled the battlefield and later committed suicide

The Allies are defeated and Mir Jaffer is again crowned as the puppet Nawab

The company did not want to indulge in the administration of the country

They wanted to expand their settlements to improve the trade

They began involving in the affairs of the Princely States to achieve this objective

They began appointing Residents in all the Princely States to look after the relationship and trade between the company and the State

The company wanted to use political, economic and diplomatic methods to extend their influence

With the residents, the company decides who would be the successor and also who should be appointed in administrative posts in these Princely States

Robert Clive chose Warren Hastings as the British Resident for Bengal in 1758

Warren Hastings was one of the prisoners of Siraj-ud-Daulah during his campaign in Fort William

Robert Clive left India in 1760 amassing massive wealth

Clive returned to India in 1765 after the Battle of Buxar and was appointed the Governor of Bengal

After the death of Mir Jaffer in 1765, the tone of the company changed

Clive wrote a letter to the company chairman that they should become the nawab themselves

In the same year, the dual system of governance was introduced

Dual System of Bengal (1765-1772):

The East India Company set up a dual system of Diwan and Nizam

The Diwan was selected by the company for revenue collection for them and the Nizam to rule the region

The company basically took over the defence administration and left the nawab with the civil administration

This happened under the Mughal emperor, Shah Alam II who was forced to allow the company to collect taxes from Bengal, Bihar and Orissa

In return, the company paid an annual tribute to the Emperor

The revenue received from these regions were used to buy merchandise from India and the returns would go to England

Thus the company became economically self-sufficient in India - Thus began the British loot of India

The Regulating Act of 1773

The act brought the three provinces under one rule and established the governor-general of India

By 1772, the company acquired Bombay and Madras, too, as their presidencies

Warren Hastings (1773-1785) became the first Governor-General of Bengal in 1771 and the Governor-General of India in 1773

The Great Famine of 1770 (almost 10 million deaths) brought about a need to change the system in the colonies

The share prices of the company plummet and the British Government had to bail out the company

Hastings’ Judicial Plan of 1772 created Faujdhari (criminal) and Diwani Adalat in the districts of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa

Each district had a district collector - he had the power of administrator, judge and magistrate

The Kazis and pandits translated the local laws to the officials

This created a fair justice system and it led to the present-day District Administrative System

It helped correct the defects and retain the local traditions of the courts and law in the regions

But it also this led to unsatisfactory judgements due to the bias of Kazis and pandits

In 1773, a Supreme Court was established in Fort William

It was set up due to the dilemma the British government was in due to the importance of the company but their need to stop corruption

Want for expansion

After Bombay and Madras presidency, the British wanted to ex

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As the French, British were also late to reach the shores of India. Facing tough competition from the Portuguese and the Dutch, it took them a few decades to figure out ways to outweigh the other empires. But by 1757, the British East India Company became the true force in colonial India.

In 1588, British traders asked for permission to conduct trade in East India

The British acquired a charter from Queen Elizabeth I in 1600 and arrived in India in 1608 at Surat

The British East India Company had competitors like the Portuguese and the Dutch who had reached India before

The British decided to rely on politics to do trade with India till 1661 when they set up their first factory in Hubli (they only had trade posts till then)

They used the internal conflicts among empires for their advantage

By 1696, they began building a fort around the settlement

In 1698, they bribed the Mughal officials to give them zamindari rights to three villages (one of the villages were Calcutta)

The British also persuaded Aurangzeb to issue a Farman (a Farman is a royal order providing permission to trade)

This Farman had a condition that the trade will be duty-free leading to a huge loss for Bengal

The British officials used to indulge in private trade, adding to the woes of Bengal

After the death of Aurangzeb, the empire struggled to survive with internal issues

Murshid Quli Khan (1717-1720), Alvardi Khan (1740-1756), and Siraj-Ud-Daulah (1756-1757) were the three most powerful nawabs of Bengal

Murshid Quli Khan, the 1st Nawab of Bengal, took the matter in his own hands and started fighting against the British

Alvardi Khan was also engaged in conflicts with the Marathas

The British didn’t pay taxes, they expanded their fortification, wrote disrespectful letters to the nawab, and caused huge revenue loss to Bengal

The company tried to justify their action by saying that the nawabs made unjust demands, they imposed extreme taxes and duties, and trade can expand only through increasing settlements

The Company wanted to remove Siraj-Ud-Daulah from the rule and place a puppet ruler

The nawab asked the company to stop interfering in the region’s politics, stop fortification, and start paying taxes

These conflict of interest led to the Battle of Plassey starting with the Nawab capturing Fort William

Nawab Siraj-Ud-Daulah ordered the French and British to stop fortification of Fort William

He captured 146 Britishers and locked them up in a room that can hold only 25 people for 3 days (Black Hole Incident)

123 people died and the British retaliated leading to the Battle of Plassey

Robert Clive with an army of 3000 defeated Nawab with the help of Mir Jaffer, Nawab’s Commander-in-Chief

After defeating the nawab, he fled in a camel, but was later captured and assassinated by Mir Jafar

Mir Jaffer becomes the puppet Nawab

The Battle of Plassey was the first major victory of the company in India and it instilled the confidence in them to start administering in the colony

Source:

Crash Course Modern History | British East India Company from 1600 - 1857

Economic Impact of Colonial Rule in India

How did British occupy India? | British India Timeline | British East India Company | Eclectic

East India Company Wikipedia

Trucial States Wikipedia

Princely States Wikipedia

Attribution:

This work includes the following sounds from http://freesound.org/

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A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular infectious disease. Vaccines contain a microorganism or virus in a weakened, live or killed state, or proteins or toxins from the organism. Vaccination comes from the Latin word “Vacca” meaning cow.

First used to eradicate smallpox estimated to have killed about 300-500 million people.

Vaccination is different from inoculation in that inoculation is a process where the actual pathogen itself is injected and in some cases, the person inoculated may catch the disease and infection can become serious as well.

Variolation: Practised in Ottoman Empire for immunity against smallpox, brought to England by lady Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. Required quarantine. Milk Maids rejected the procedure claiming they had cowpox. 

Immune cells start as stem cells within the bone marrow. Lymph nods store immune cells to be released during pathogen infection and swell during infection as a result.

Antigen Presenting Cells (APC) monitors blood for pathogens and on finding them start the process of Phagocytosis where the pathogens are ingested and broken down to be presented to the nearest lymph nodes which start the immune response. These pieces of pathogens are called antigens.

APC activates the T cells which oversee the cytokine proteins. These proteins of the immune system help regulate immunity. B cells multiply and generate antibodies that can kill the pathogens.

After the first infection, these T and B cells remain in the system preparing for future pathogen invasions.

Two types of vaccines:

Live attenuated vaccines: a mild version of the pathogen is used. Effective for a long time but the risk of being infected.

Inactivated vaccine: Dead pathogens or parts of pathogens are used. It is effective for a short term and repeated booster shots might be essential. Safer.

Herd Immunity: When a majority of people in the society get immunity which slows down the spread.

Immunological memory: Ability of an immune system to quickly and specifically recognise an antigen the body has previously seen and then initiate an immune response.

Acquired Immune System: It is a subsystem of the immune system that consists of specialised cells and processes that eliminate pathogens by limiting their growth.

Vaccination can fail due to difference in immunity amongst people. Usually has side effects and no vaccine is 100% effective

Source:

Infographic Show video: How Are Vaccines Actually Made

Reddit post on Rabies: What's a scary or disturbing fact that would probably keep most people awake at night?

Image by cottonbro from Pexels

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The story of Japanese occupation is one that is long forgotten. So here is an episode throwing some light into the incident.

They were merciless and gained confidence after the Japanese-Russian war.

The war happened between 1904-1905

The Russians did not have resources or technological advancements to fight against the Japanese

Conquered China in the 1930s

The Chinese invasion of Manchuria began on 18 September 1931

It happened right after the staged Mukden Incident

They established the puppet state of Manchukuo

The deception was exposed in 1932 by the Lytton Report

It led to Japan being diplomatically isolated and eventually, their withdrawal from the League of Nations

Nanjing Massacre

It was an episode of mass murder and rape by the Imperial Army of Japan in Nanjing, the then capital of China during the second Sino-Japanese War.

China was the underdog and much inferior army and the Japanese showed no remorse.

It happened over a period of six weeks starting from 13 December 1937

Around 40,000 to 300,000 people were murdered and looted during this period of time

The accounts of the massacre were erased by Japan shortly before their surrender in 1945

There is a huge controversy surrounding the issue including outright denial of the occurrence of the massacre to the accusation that the Chinese government exaggerated the number of people killed

But many in the Japanese government themselves have admitted to killing many non-combatants

Conquering of Burma

Japan occupied Burma (a previous British territory) from 1942-1945

The conquest began in December of 1941

Conquer of Andaman and Nicobar Islands

The conquest of the island by Japan took place in 1942

The accounts are collected from

the unpublished reports of a local resident Rama Krishna: The Andaman Islands under Japanese Occupation 1942–1945

unpublished account by a British Officer, D. McCarthy: The Andaman Interlude (he was sent on a secret mission to the islands in 1944)

and with the memories of the older inhabitants interviewed by historians

On the fourth day after the arrival of the Japanese, the first victim was killed.

A young man Zulfiqar Ali angered by the soldiers pursuing chickens in his house fired an airgun at the soldiers. He was forced to go into hiding. Once he was captured his arms were twisted till they broke and then he was fired at.

Locals joined the Indian Independence League founded by Rash Behari Bose

One of its members, Dr Diwan Singh also formed a peace committee

An airport was built through forced labour

Comfort Women were brought from South Korea to these garrisons

Most of the topmost leaders of the Indian Independence League were captured and killed

Andaman and Nicobar Islands were handed over to Indian National Army in 29 December 1943

Subhas Chandra Bose visited Port Blair and raised the INA tricolour proclaiming Azad Hind

The Japanese screened his every movement to shield the reality of the situation from Bose

The Homfray Ganj massacre took place on 30 January 1944, where 44 civilians from the island were killed on the accusation that they were spies

The Islands were ruled by the Japanese till the British took it back in October 7, 1945

In 1945, due to scarcity of food, around 250-700 inhabitants of the islands were forced to move to uninhabited islands to produce food

A rescue mission could only find 12 survivors and hundreds of skeletons on the islands. Many also died due to shark attacks

Around 2000 people were killed and over 500 tortured during the course of Japanese occupation

The Battle of Imphal

The battleground was spread across present-day Manipur and Nagaland

30,000 soldiers died. More than half while retreating due to starvation and diseases

Japan was not prepared at all. Expected to get it over within 3 weeks, but went on for months

The allied air supply was far superior

Lt. Gen. Renya Mutaguchi said the conquest would require the sacrifice of 5,000 soldiers

Hirokuni Saito’s journal gave

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This episode is sponsored by BodyCafé. BodyCafé is an organic lifestyle wellness brand that is based on authentic and traditional beauty practices.

Visit BodyCafé and use the coupon code HI15 for the best quality hand sanitizers and other beauty products.

Coupon code: HI15

Welcome to the first part of Writer & Geek Unscripted. We have been planning this a series where we talk about things that are happening around us for the longest time. But it needed a big push in the form of a pandemic to get it in motion.In the first episode of the series, we talk about how the pandemic has effected our personal, work and social life, and how we are coping with it. We also talk about some of the things we do to keep some sense of sanity in this new "abnormally" normal times.If you find this relatable, make sure you share your story with us. Be it in written, audio or video form, let us know how you are getting through. If you are okay with sharing it with the rest of the world, we will add your story in the next episode.Find the Writer & Geek's guide to podcasting here.

Productivity application we mentioned in this episode:Notion | Things | Tick Tick

Books we have mentioned and recommend you to check out:

The Third Door: Hardcover | Kindle

Atomic Habits: Paperback | Kindle | Audio CD

Sherlock Holmes: Paperback | Mass Market Paperback | Hardcover | Kindle

The Hound of Baskervilles: Paperback | Hardcover | Kindle | Audio CD

Note: The purchase links for the books are affiliate links. So, it will do a world of good for us if you purchase any of these books using these links. Thank you!

This episode is sponsored by BodyCafé. BodyCafé is an organic lifestyle wellness brand that is based on authentic and traditional beauty practices.

Visit BodyCafé and use the coupon code HI15 for the best quality hand sanitizers and other beauty products.

Coupon code: HI15

Image by Oli Lynch from Pixabay

See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

This episode is sponsored by BodyCafé. BodyCafé is an organic lifestyle wellness brand that is based on authentic and traditional beauty practices.

Visit BodyCafé and use the coupon code HI15 for the best quality hand sanitizers and other beauty products.

Coupon code: HI15

What is a hand sanitizer?

It is a liquid, gel or foam used to reduce infectious agents in on our hands.

Hand wash is usually preferred as hand sanitizers cannot kill certain kinds of germs and it cannot remove harmful chemicals. But during certain situations, it is handy to use hand sanitizer over hand wash.

Effective hand sanitizer has over 60% of alcohol content. It is usually a combination of isopropyl alcohol, ethanol (ethyl alcohol) or n-propanol from 60% to 95% concentration.

It works with many microorganisms but does not have much effect in spores (a primitive usually unicellular often environmentally resistant dormant or reproductive body produced by plants, fungi, and some microorganisms and capable of development into a new individual either directly or after fusion with another spore).

Glycerol can be added to reduce drying of the skin. Fragrances can be added but it can lead to allergic reactions.

There are non-alcoholic hand sanitizers but are mostly ineffective. Alcohol-free sanitizers use povidone-iodine, benzalkonium chloride or triclosan.

Alcohol's antiseptic properties have been put into use since the 14th century but in the modern world, alcohol-based hand sanitizer became a fixture from the 1980s.

Hand sanitizers were introduced to the healthcare setting in 1966 and were popularised in the 90s.

Hand sanitizer not effective on greasy, oily surfaces. It cannot remove heavy metal and pesticides like contaminants.

Hand sanitizers are recommended only if hand wash is not available.

It is flammable so has to be handled with care.

It does not affect the beneficial microorganisms but removes the outer oil layer from the skin.

Cases of ingestion have caused deaths. During the pandemic, the scarcity of alcohol leads to nine alcoholics in New Mexico to drink hand sanitizer. They were severely injured and three died.

How to use it?

Apply product to the palm of one hand.

Rub hands together.

Rub the product over all surfaces of hands and fingers until hands are dry.

Do not go near flame or gas burner or any burning object during applying hand sanitizer.

Listerine:

Founded in 1879 by Joseph Lawrence

Named after John Lister

Kill germs that cause bad breath

Joseph Lister demonstrated in 1865 that using carbolic acid on surgical dressings drastically reduces the chance of post-surgical infection. His demonstration was inspired by Louis Pasteur's study of microbial infection.

It was promoted to the dentist as an oral care product from 1895. Finally released as over the counter mouthwash in the US from 1914.

It started as a powerful surgical antiseptic, the distilled form was sold both as a floor cleaner and as a cure for gonorrhoea.

It was not successful until the 1920s when it was promoted as a solution for chronic halitosis (bad breath).

(Mention the advertisement.)

From the 1920s-1970s it was also marketed as a preventive measure for sore throat and cold. (did not work at all)

Listerine cigarettes were also marketed in 1927.

From the 1930s - mid-1950s it was also advertised as a preventive measure for infectious dandruff.

Safety concerns were raised saying acidic mouthwash increases the chances of oral cancer but was cleared as no evidence was found to support it.

The active ingredients listed on Listerine packaging are essential oils which are menthol (mint) 0.042%, thymol (thyme) 0.064%, methyl salicylate (wintergreen) 0.06%, and eucalyptol (eucalyptus) 0.092%.

Dettol vs Savlon:

Dettol was released in 1933 as an antiseptic liquid for the treatment of cuts and wounds. It remained like that for the next 50 years.

Now it has hand wash, liquid antiseptics, body wash, plater, soap and shaving cream with 50% of market sh

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The French came into play relatively late in comparison with the British, Dutch and Portuguese. They established themselves in colonial India in the second half of the 17th Century and occupied their post until 1954. They produced rice, peanuts, betel nuts, and vegetables.

Their major establishments in India were Pondicherry, Karaikal, Yanam (Andra Pradesh) on Coromandel Coast and Mahe on the Malabar Coast and Chandernagor in Bengal.

By the time the French came to India, other colonial powers had multiple trading stations and ports set up. Their customs barriers, belief systems, inexperience in such large investments are quoted as some reasons for their late entry in the trade.

The first French East India Company was set up under Henry IV in 1603 but didn’t have any settlements. The second was set up in 1642, but it took its proper shape only in 1664 with the help of Jean Baptist Caillouet under Louis XIV. The company gained a monopoly for the next 50 years.

The company was given the go-ahead to trade in Madagascar (a fertile land for agriculture). But it took up a lot of resources and they dropped the idea in a few years to concentrate on India.

The duties of the company were handled by Francois Caron who previously worked with the Dutch East India Company for 30 years and reached the post of Governor-General.

Factories were opened in Surat in 1668, Masulipatnam in 1669, and Bantam, Indonesian. And in 1673 with the permission of Mughal in Chandernagore.

They established their stronghold in Pondicherry by 1674. Pondicherry was obtained from the Sultan of Bijapur. In 1701, Pondicherry was made the headquarters of French East India Company.

Dutch had seized Pondicherry from the French in the 1690s, but they took it back in 6 years through the Treaty of Ryswick. But the Dutch held their garrison in Pondicherry for another two years before leaving, eventually. (The Peace of Ryswick, or Rijswijk, was a series of treaties signed in the Dutch city of Rijswijk between 20 September and 30 October 1697. They ended the Nine Years' War which took place from 1688 to 1697 between France, and the Grand Alliance, which included England, Spain, Emperor Leopold, and the Dutch Republic.)

The War of Spanish Succession in Europe led to French losing many of their factories in India.

As the Dutch left Mauritius in 1715, the French replaced them there. Later they took over Seychelles and Chagos Islands.

By 1718 they had to leave Surat, Masulipatnam and Bantam factories because they were not able to compete with the Dutch and the British.

The company was combined with John Law’s Mississippi company in 1719. Its purpose was to run both the west and east Indian companies. But the company dissolved in a year.

In 1723, the company restarted and set up their factories in Yanam in Andhra Pradesh, Mahe, and Karaikal. They worked under the name of “The Perpetual Company of the Indies”.

They rose in power from 1720-1742 under the leadership of governors Pierre Christophe Le Noir and Pierre Benoît Dumas backed by the possession of Mauritius and the Southern Indian Ocean.

The political situation in South India was weak during the 1740s. The princely states were busy fighting each other, leaving the colonial power to conquer territories that were left without much protection such as the Coromandel Coast. (Hyderabad battling Marathas)

Joseph François Dupleix (most successful general), after he arrived in 1741, wanted to create a French empire in India. This clashed with the interest of the British. They extended their empire from Hyderabad to Kanyakumari. But the dream of further expansion was squashed by the arrival of British Governor, Robert Clive. Dupleix was sent back to France after the peace talks failed.

The British and the French got too much into the political scene of India leading to a conflict between them - Carnatic Wars (1740-1748).

Seven-year war - French and British - 1756-1763 - it is also referred to as Zero World War.

In 175

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The Danish-Norwegian occupation of India is not as significant in comparison with many of the other colonial empires because they did not pose any military or trading threats. They were never able to capitalise and monopolise on their trade routes like the British, the French or the Portuguese.

First Danish East India Company

Danish India was the name given to Danish-Norwegian colonies in India.

The Danish used to trade with India before the Portuguese drove them off.

Their empire survived for over 200 years in India.

They established bases in Tharangambadi in Tamil Nadu, Serampore in West Bengal, and the Nicobar Islands.

They were able to hold on to their posts in India because they created their own niche in the trade so there was no conflict between the other empires.

But as always, the British finally took the Danish occupied regions in the 19th century (1839, 1845, 1868 to be exact).

Christian IV on 17 March 1616, ordered the creation of the Danish East India Company for managing trade with Asia for the next 12 years.

But the project took another 2 years to launch as they were not able to secure finances right away. (Dutch assistance to trade with Sri Lanka)

The first expedition to Asia took place in 1618 under the leadership of Admiral Ove Gjedde.

The crew took two years (May 1620) to reach Ceylon (present-day Sri Lanka) and lost more than half its crew.

They had to occupy Koneswaram Temple as the Emperor no longer wanted to trade with anyone other than the Portuguese due to the peace treaty they signed in between.

Their trade director, Robert Crappe had already set sail to Asia a month before the main voyage started.

Their ship was sunk near Karaikal with most of the crew killed and two were placed on the beach on spikes by the Portuguese as a warning to the Danish.

Crappe and 13 other crew members who escaped were captured by native Indian and taken to the leader of Thanjavur.

The leader was interested in trading opportunities and let the Danish set up their base in Tharangambadi, building Fort Dansborg on 20 November 1620.

1621-1650

The colony faced a lot of issues due to this time. From administration to investment and loss of two-thirds of trading vessels, things looked bleak. The geographical location of the colony resulted in high tides resulting in the destruction of everything they built. The dire financial situation forced them to directly conduct business.

1625 a factory established in Masulipatnam (major hub)

Mini hubs in Pipli and Balasore

They still were under poor financial conditions and had only three ships left

Tensions began building up as they could not pay the local leader

The British and the Dutch also wanted them out but did not do anything as it would complicate their relationships in mainland Europe.

They try to sell Fort Dansborg to the Dutch in 1640

Go to war against the Mughals in 1642, capture one of their ships in the Bay of Bengal and make it theirs naming it Bengali Prize.

In 1643, the Dutch and Sweden declared war on Denmark. The Danish holdings profit decreases drastically under the Dutch and the leader sends his band to raid Tranquebar.

Christian IV, the King, dies and the company goes bankrupt.

Two years after Christian IV’s death Frederick II, his son, abolished the company.

Though abolished, the colony remained a royal property of the Danes and it was held by a garrison unaware of the developments back home. But over the years, the number of Danes decreased and it was hired by the Portuguese. It was later taken back by Eskild Anderson Kongsbakke (the only remaining Dane in Tranquebar) in 1665 and he defended it from everyone. He kept on seizing ships in the Bay of Bengal and built a wall and finally negotiated with the local leaders. This news prompted the King to send another vessel captained by Captain Sivardt Adelaer, to confirm the coming back of the colony in India again after 19 years of isolation.

Second Danish East India Company (1672-1732)

With

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Marriage is a culturally recognised union between people. The ceremony of marriage is called a wedding.

Marriages may be conducted for legal, social, emotional, financial, spiritual, political and various other reasons.

Early marriages started as strategic alliances and the parties marrying each other usually have no say in the matter at all.

Some specific rules exist about who is allowed to marry. Certain relationships are forbidden from marrying.

In modern times, interfaith and same-sex marriages are common and part of many societies around the world.

Marriage happens when the parties bring government into the commitment!

Most countries require a civil marriage and registration of the marriage to be considered valid and not just the religious ceremony.

Crazy facts:

In Ancient Greece, if a woman's father dies without a male heir, she can be forced to divorce the nearest relative. Even if she has to divorce the first wife.In some cultures, marrying to the spirit of a deceased person was also conducted to strengthen the family bond.A Roman statesman married off his wife to his friend to strengthen their bond and then remarried her when the friend died.Upper-class aristocrats usually had arranged marriages and practised adultery to help nurture the marriages. Weird.People from lower strata of the society in Europe, like peasants, had to pay a fee to marry someone they loved, else the village decides for them.It some parts of the world, loving your spouse too much and calling nicknames was all considered to be impolite.

Sources:
Wikipedia
The Spruce
Psychology Today
Live Science
International Business Times

Image by marla66 from Pixabay

See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

Marriage is a culturally recognised union between people. The ceremony of marriage is called a wedding.

Marriages may be conducted for legal, social, emotional, financial, spiritual, political and various other reasons.

Early marriages started as strategic alliances and the parties marrying each other usually have no say in the matter at all.

Some specific rules exist about who is allowed to marry. Certain relationships are forbidden from marrying.

In modern times, interfaith and same-sex marriages are common and part of many societies around the world.

Marriage happens when the parties bring government into the commitment!

Most countries require a civil marriage and registration of the marriage to be considered valid and not just the religious ceremony.

Crazy facts:

In Ancient Greece, if a woman's father dies without a male heir, she can be forced to divorce the nearest relative. Even if she has to divorce the first wife.In some cultures, marrying to the spirit of a deceased person was also conducted to strengthen the family bond.A Roman statesman married off his wife to his friend to strengthen their bond and then remarried her when the friend died.Upper-class aristocrats usually had arranged marriages and practised adultery to help nurture the marriages. Weird.People from lower strata of the society in Europe, like peasants, had to pay a fee to marry someone they loved, else the village decides for them.It some parts of the world, loving your spouse too much and calling nicknames was all considered to be impolite.

Sources:
Wikipedia
The Spruce
Psychology Today
Live Science
International Business Times

Image by marla66 from Pixabay

See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.