Giants Shoulder

Philip Ball is a former Nature editor of 20 years and the author of over 30 books spanning quantum physics, consciousness, and the strange frontiers of biology. In How Life Works, he argues that everything we’ve been taught about life — genes, blueprints, biological machines — is deeply incomplete.

Get How Life Works: https://amzn.to/46dQRMlBiology isn’t built from instructions. It’s built from self-organising systems that sense, evaluate, predict and act. Cognition didn’t start with brains. Purpose isn’t mystical. And causation may not live where we think it does.

Expect to learn why genes aren’t in control, how cells make decisions without neurons, what combinatorial explosion means for biology, why self-organisation shapes development, how agency emerges from physics, and what all of this means for consciousness — and much more…

Timestamps

00:00 The Evolution of Biological Understanding

04:54 Rethinking Genes and Their Functions

10:59 The Complexity of Biological Systems

15:50 Metaphors in Biology: The Need for New Narratives

25:12 Robustness in Biological Systems

30:26 Hierarchies and Interactions in Biology

35:36 The Impact of Genetic Mutations

38:09 Redundancy and Compensation in Biological Systems

39:26 Understanding Noisy Cellular Activity

43:53 The Role of Noise in Cell Differentiation

46:45 Navigating Developmental Landscapes

49:48 Canalization and Robustness in Biology

53:27 The Dynamics of Energy Landscapes in Biology

57:01 Self-Organization and Developmental Goals

01:00:52 The Interplay of Genes and Non-Equilibrium Systems

01:10:54 The Limitations of Genetic Metaphors

01:12:36 Understanding Causal Emergence

01:15:19 Neural Networks and Causal Power

01:17:29 The Complexity of Protein Functions

01:21:05 Cognition Across Biological Systems

01:23:32 The Future of Biology Education

01:29:30 Rethinking Genetic Determinism

01:33:17 Agency and Meaning in Biology

01:44:40 Continuity of Agency in Biological Systems

01:47:02 Defining Genuine Agency in Proteins

01:50:55 Exploring Sentience and Awareness in Cells

01:56:53 Ethical Considerations in Generative Biology

01:59:51 The Future of Synthetic Biology and Regulation

...

Episodes Mentioned

Meet the MIT Neuroscientist Showing Brain Waves Are the Secret Engine Behind Consciousness: https://youtu.be/7OFb-NG3jIw

Meet the Scientist Creating New Forms of Synthetic Life! Dr Michael Levin: https://youtu.be/LTBZRVKUwyM

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Dr. Josh Bongard is a computer scientist, roboticist, and co-creator of Xenobots — the world’s first living robots made from frog cells, capable of movement, healing, and even self-replication.

Together with biologist Michael Levin, Bongard’s work is upending some of biology’s most sacred assumptions: that DNA is a blueprint, that the brain is the seat of intelligence, and that only neurons can think. In his lab at the University of Vermont, he’s building AI-designed organisms that challenge our understanding of life, agency, intelligence, and what it means to be a self.

Expect to learn how a pile of skin cells assembled itself into a replicating robot, why biology may be cognitive all the way down, how AI is learning to design living systems from scratch, why memory and learning might emerge in systems without brains, why the illusion of consciousness could be evolution’s greatest trick, how Xenobots are influencing the future of robotics and synthetic life, what moral standing these beings might eventually require, and why your high school biology textbook may have gotten almost everything wrong

…

Timestamps:

00:00 The Birth of Xenobots

03:08 Understanding Xenobots: Science and Implications

05:57 Cognition and Intelligence: A New Perspective

08:53 Defining Consciousness and Self-Awareness

12:09 Memory and Learning in Xenobots

14:46 The Nature of Experience and Reality

18:00 Exploring Agency and Adaptation

20:52 The Future of Xenobots and Robotics

28:10 The Evolution of Robotics: Learning from Biology

30:21 Human-Like Adaptability in Robots

33:10 Xenobots: The Future of Self-Replication

37:38 Understanding Agency in Xenobots

40:47 The Challenge of Defining Agency

43:35 Ethical Considerations of Xenobots

45:07 AI and the Future of Biological Robotics

47:43 The Role of AI in Understanding Biology

52:05 The Potential of AI in Biological Discoveries

55:15 The Moral Implications of Synthetic Life

01:00:01 Future of Food and Ethical Eating

...

Episodes Mentioned: Challenging a Famous Neuroscientist On When Consciousness First Emerged: https://youtu.be/ZnasmLpY5_8

Meet the Scientist Who Mathematically Proved Reality is an Illusion! Round 2: https://youtu.be/kTKE8eLo8CU

Philip Ball: Why Quantum Mechanics is NOT What you think, Consciousness, Brain Organoids, AI & Life!: https://youtu.be/nNbG5lnp51E

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Dr. Tommy Wood is a neuroscientist and performance expert who trains the brains of elite Formula 1 drivers and studies how cognitive resilience can be built—and rebuilt—across a lifetime.From premature birth to world championship podiums, Tommy’s work spans the full arc of brain health, human performance, and cognitive decline. He’s also at the forefront of research into cutting-edge brain stimulation, virtual reality training, and the science of flow and resilience.Expect to learn what separates F1 drivers from the rest of us, why most brain training is a scam (and what actually works), the surprising role of virtual reality in cognitive development, why recovery and adaptation are more important than optimization, how elite performers manipulate arousal to access clutch states, why Sudoku doesn’t make you smarter, how executive function and decision-making can be trained like a muscle, the truth about brain stimulation (tDCS, TMS, vagus nerve) and what’s still pseudoscience, how dancing and martial arts might save your brain, and why cognitive decline is far from inevitable—and what to do to slow or even reverse it.Timestamps:00:00:00 Meet the Neuroscientist Training Formula 1 Drivers00:03:42 The Science Behind Split-Second Decision-Making at 200mph00:05:15 What Sets F1 Brains Apart From the Rest of Us?00:06:20 Is High Performance Born or Built?00:10:13 Why Obsession With Outcomes Can Hurt Your Brain00:11:26 Cognitive Optimization: What’s Real, What’s a Scam?00:13:12 Near vs Far Transfer: How Real Is Brain Training?00:17:01 The Best Activities for Boosting Brain Plasticity00:18:21 Why Complex Skill Learning Is the New Brain Hack00:19:20 How F1 Drivers Train Executive Function Without Driving00:22:09 Optimizing Recovery to Enhance Mental Performance00:23:21 Virtual Reality as the Future of Cognitive Training00:27:14 Why Real-World Complexity Trumps Gamified Drills00:30:00 Can VR Really Make You a Better Athlete?00:33:03 The Secret Behind Federer’s “Average” Reflexes00:34:11 Brain Stimulation in High Performance: Where Are We Now?00:39:41 Flow vs Clutch: What Actually Drives Performance?00:42:00 What Flow Feels Like in a Formula 1 Car00:45:03 Flow Is Overrated for Learning: Here’s Why00:46:34 The “Rule of Thirds” of Human Performance00:47:08 Understanding How and Why the Brain Declines With Age00:48:05 Allostasis: How the Brain Balances Change Over Time00:49:02 Does Routine Shrink the Brain?00:50:04 Can We Reverse Cognitive Aging?00:51:04 Tau, Amyloid and the Story of Dementia00:51:57 Resilience and Reserve: Your Brain’s Emergency Buffer00:53:16 What Triathlons Can Teach Us About Brain Longevity00:53:49 Aerobic vs Resistance Training for Brain Health00:54:54 White Matter and Why Lifting Weights Builds Intelligence00:55:22 The Surprising Brain Benefits of Dance, Martial Arts and Sport00:56:32 The Future of Brain Health: Stimulate or Decline00:57:13 Why Your Cognitive Destiny Is More Controllable Than You Think00:57:59 You Don’t Need Gadgets to Save Your Brain00:58:27 TMS, VR, Movement: The Future of Neurostimulation00:58:43 Final Reflections From the Brain Coach of Formula 1...❤️ Subscribe to our main channel - https://www.youtube.com/@thegiantsshoulder?sub_confirmation=1💚 Follow on Spotify - https://open.spotify.com/show/5m3Gta5MtIYdk59pb2GJ7M?si=Ka2rAQv7TyqiC9wvGwERpA💜 Follow on Apple Podcasts - https://podcasts.apple.com/ie/podcast/the-giants-shoulder/id1752486249Sponsors:Mind Labs Pro Scientifically Rigorous Supplements: https://www.mindlabpro.com/?a_aid=67fd1cb8d9ad3&a_bid=6d45f5c3Get Professional High Quality Talk Therapy at BetterHelp. 10% off your first month of therapy with this link - https://betterhelp.com/giantsshoulder (Paid Partnership by BetterHelp)Download my FREE EBook 26 Neuroscience Books for 2026 HERE: https://thegiantsshoulder.com/

Joscha Bach is a cognitive scientist, AI researcher, and philosopher of mind whose work has shaped how we think about synthetic consciousness and the architecture of thought itself.

He developed the MicroPsi cognitive architecture, has held research roles at MIT and Harvard, and just co-founded the California Institute of Machine Consciousness with Karl Friston — a lab dedicated to building minds that know they exist.

Expect to learn how emotions are compressed value functions for simulated agents, how brains create recursive world models to predict and control experience, why the self might just be a stabilizing hallucination, how synthetic minds could surpass biological ones, why Joscha sees spirits as information processes, and how consciousness might emerge anywhere complex systems learn to model themselves.

We also explore the implications of Michael Levin’s work, the ethics of synthetic selves, why nature is already computational, and what’s truly at the bedrock of reality. This conversation is strange, deep, and unforgettable.

Timestamps:00:00 Journey into Consciousness and AI

02:59 The Intersection of Neuroscience and AI

05:52 Understanding Consciousness: A Second Order Perception

08:53 Consciousness: An Evolved Property or Fundamental Reality?

12:03 The Concept of Spirit in Consciousness

14:56 Exploring Consciousness in Non-Brain Systems

18:00 The Nature of Consciousness in Organisms

21:12 The Role of Software in Consciousness

23:52 The Potential of Xenobots and Consciousness

37:06 Emergence of Artificial Life

40:12 The Nature of Consciousness

43:56 Comparing Consciousness Across Species

46:58 The Role of Social Structures in Consciousness

54:39 Biological Ingredients for Consciousness

01:10:55 Building Conscious AI

01:16:38 Exploring Ethical Constraints in AI Experiments

01:18:11 The Nature of Consciousness in AI

01:22:18 Comparing Consciousness: LLMs vs. Xenobots

01:24:19 The Binary Nature of Consciousness

01:27:01 Agency vs. Consciousness: A Complex Relationship

01:32:34 The Horrors of Conscious Existence

01:37:41 Concerns About AI and Society

01:40:14 The Role of AI in Society's Future

01:46:57 The Urgency of AI Development

01:51:03 The Future of AI and Society...

...

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Peter Sjöstedt-Hughes is a philosopher of mind and leading voice on psychedelics, panpsychism, and the metaphysics of consciousness. He’s a research fellow at the University of Exeter and author of Noumenautics and Modes of Sentience — books exploring whether mind is fundamental to the universe.

In this episode, we dive into why your brain might not produce consciousness, how psychedelics could reveal deeper truths about reality, the philosophical roots of mystical experience, and why matter itself might be sentient.

Expect to rethink everything you thought was solid...

Timestamps:

00:00 Understanding Panpsychism

02:49 The Nature of Consciousness

05:56 Defining Mind and Its Ambiguities

09:01 Historical Perspectives on Mind

11:49 The Evolution of Consciousness

14:57 Philosophical Positions on Consciousness

17:41 The Intersection of Consciousness and Biology

20:33 The Influence of Historical Context on Consciousness

23:53 Exploring the Continuum of Consciousness

26:41 The Debate on Consciousness Cutoff Points

32:22 Exploring the Nature of Electrons and Consciousness

34:26 The Interconnection of Consciousness and Physics

36:24 Diverse Perspectives on Panpsychism

40:13 Historical Context of Panpsychism and Its Reception

43:40 Psychedelics: Insights into Consciousness

51:52 The Challenge of Describing Psychedelic Experiences

01:00:23 The Debate of Universalism vs Contextualism

01:01:43 Psychedelics and Consciousness: Fact vs Fiction

01:03:46 Hallucinations: Delusions or Deeper Reality?

01:05:13 Mental Causation: The Connection Between Mind and Body

01:08:55 The Therapeutic Mechanism of Psychedelics

01:12:49 Exploring Panpsychism: Consciousness Beyond the Brain

01:16:22 The Future of Consciousness Studies

01:25:03 Metaphysical Possibilities in Science

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Dr. Adele Diamond is one of the world’s most influential developmental cognitive neuroscientists and a pioneer in our understanding of executive functions — the brain’s core control processes that shape attention, self-regulation, problem-solving, and goal-directed behaviour.Her groundbreaking research was the first to show that the prefrontal cortex is active in infants, transforming how we understand child development and reshaping clinical treatment for ADHD and PKU worldwide. She’s also led the charge in redefining education, proving that joy, movement, play, and emotional connection aren’t luxuries — they’re neuroscience-backed necessities.

Expect to learn what executive functions really are and why they matter for everything from school performance to lifelong happiness, the overlooked role of the prefrontal cortex in ADHD, how dopamine operates very differently in this brain region, the crucial (and often missed) distinction between types of ADHD, why some kids are misdiagnosed when they’re actually suffering from trauma, why psychostimulants can backfire and how we might be overprescribing the wrong doses, why martial arts might outperform cognitive training, how childhood stress reshapes brain wiring, the profound importance of early encouragement and self-concept, how AI and smartphones are degrading our cognitive systems, why social-emotional connection is a prerequisite for learning, and what Adele believes schools are still getting tragically wrong — even today.This is an episode about rewiring how we think about attention, emotion, learning, and what it means to help human beings thrive.

Timestamps:

00:00 Understanding Executive Functions and Their Importance

04:48 The Journey to Discovering the Prefrontal Cortex

11:04 Behavioral Paradigms: Linking Cognition and Brain Function

18:05 ADHD: Understanding the Disorder and Its Nuances

25:56 Dopamine, Focus, and Executive Function

32:58 The Role of Psychostimulants and Long-Term Effects

35:21 Improving Executive Function Beyond Medication

38:00 Brain Plasticity: Can We Train Executive Function at Any Age?

41:26 Self-Identity and Its Impact on Learning and Growth

42:52 The Future of Executive Function in the Age of AI

44:03 AI in Education: Opportunities and Challenges

45:58 Balancing AI Use in Learning

48:04 The Role of Technology in Early Childhood Development

51:57 Attention Span and Distraction in the Digital Age

53:57 Social Interaction and Mental Health

56:03 The Dangers of Over-Reliance on Technology

59:12 The Importance of Social-Emotional Learning

01:03:05 Integrating Emotional Intelligence in Education

01:05:58 The Need for Teacher Training in Child Development

01:09:48 Addressing Childhood Trauma and Mental Health

01:14:03 The Role of Psychedelics in Healing

01:17:08 Conclusion and Future Directions

...

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Andrew Pask is Chief Biology Officer at Colossal Biosciences and a professor of genetics at the University of Melbourne. He’s spent over 30 years on the front lines of marsupial conservation and now leads one of the most ambitious projects in biology: the genetic resurrection and rewilding of the extinct Tasmanian tiger.Sponsors:Get 1 Week Free of ConsensusAi: https://get.consensus.app/giantsshoulder1Mind Labs Pro Scientifically Rigorous Supplements: https://www.mindlabpro.com/?a_aid=67fd1cb8d9ad3&a_bid=6d45f5c3De-extinction isn’t science fiction anymore — it’s a toolkit for saving what’s left of the natural world. From woolly mammoths to dodos to genetically edited quolls, Andrew’s work sits at the crossroads of synthetic biology, ecological restoration, and moral philosophy.Expect to learn why de-extinction might be the only way to preserve biodiversity, how CRISPR and ancient DNA are being used to rebuild lost genomes, what species we can and should bring back, the cultural myths and ethical fears surrounding “playing God,” the truth about the dire wolf announcement, why apex predators matter more than you think, how genetically reprogrammed animals might rescue ecosystems, what Jurassic Park got right — and what it absolutely didn’t, and much more...Timestamps:00:00 The Mission of De-Extinction03:03 Genomic Advances in De-Extinction05:52 The Process of Rebuilding Extinct Species08:53 Conservation and Genetic Diversity12:04 Targeting Endangered Species14:48 Rewilding the Tasmanian Tiger18:06 Monitoring and Managing Ecosystems29:23 The Complexity of Ecosystems and Species Interactions32:01 Genetic Diversity and Its Importance38:12 The Role of Genetic Diversity in Climate Resilience40:51 The Urgency of De-Extinction Technology43:19 The Future of Tasmanian Tigers and Rewilding45:39 Woolly Mammoths: Ecosystem Engineers50:09 Funding and Ethical Considerations in De-Extinction53:42 The Moral Obligation of De-Extinction56:42 Navigating the Controversy of Species Classification01:01:04 The Role of Marketing in Conservation01:04:38 Defining Ethical Boundaries in Genetic Engineering01:10:30 Policy Challenges in Genetic Conservation01:14:06 Future Projects in De-Extinction...❤️ Subscribe to our main channel - https://www.youtube.com/@thegiantsshoulder?sub_confirmation=1💚 Follow on Spotify - https://open.spotify.com/show/5m3Gta5MtIYdk59pb2GJ7M?si=Ka2rAQv7TyqiC9wvGwERpA💜 Follow on Apple Podcasts - https://podcasts.apple.com/ie/podcast/the-giants-shoulder/id1752486249Download my FREE EBook 26 Neuroscience Books for 2026 HERE: https://thegiantsshoulder.com/

Karl Friston is one of the most influential neuroscientists alive and the creator of the Free Energy Principle, a unifying theory that aims to explain how brains perceive, act, learn, and remain alive in an uncertain world.

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The brain is not a passive receiver of information. It is an active prediction machine, constantly generating expectations about the world and the body, updating those beliefs when they fail, and acting to make its predictions come true. Under this framework, perception is inference, action is prediction fulfilment, emotion is bodily forecasting, and the self is a model the brain uses to explain its own persistence.

Expect to learn what the Free Energy Principle actually is, why living systems must minimise surprise, how predictive coding and active inference work, why perception is a controlled hallucination, how attention and precision shape experience, what interoceptive inference reveals about emotion and the self, how psychedelics relax beliefs, where consciousness might fit in a predictive hierarchy, and why this theory may be one of the deepest explanations of mind we currently have.

Timestamps:

00:00 Introduction to the Free Energy Principle

02:54 Deflationary Nature of the Free Energy Principle

05:48 Explaining the Free Energy Principle: High Road vs. Low Road

09:02 Predictive Processing and Perception

11:49 Active Inference and Its Implications

15:07 Interoception and Emotional Inference

18:02 Generative Models and Selfhood

20:54 The Role of Emotions in Predictive Coding

23:55 Transformative Experiences and Learning

26:44 Conclusion: The Practical Applications of the Free Energy Principle

48:58 Understanding the Role of Psychedelics in Therapy

52:48 Mechanisms of False Inference and Precision in the Brain

57:24 Relaxing Priors: The Impact of Psychedelics on Sense-Making

01:01:03 Generative Models: Individual Differences and Shared Structures

01:06:49 Cognitively Impenetrable Illusions and Prior Beliefs

01:15:15 Sensory Attenuation and the Role of Attention

01:19:03 The Free Energy Principle: Implications for Psychiatry

01:25:48 The Future of Neuroscience Education and Research

...

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Dr. Michael Graziano is a neuroscientist, professor at Princeton University, and creator of Attention Schema Theory — one of the most provocative scientific explanations for consciousness to date.

He argues that awareness isn’t magic or mystery — it’s the brain’s simplified internal model of its own attention. A trick of information. A self-portrait painted by neurons. And it just might explain why you think you’re a “you” at all.

Expect to learn why consciousness is a useful illusion, how awareness emerges from neural models, what happens when these models break down in brain damage or stroke, why future AIs might think they’re conscious (and what that means for us), whether subjective experience can be explained without magic, why attention is the gateway to control, how consciousness helps us navigate the social world, what ventriloquism reveals about the mind, and how understanding this theory might shift everything we believe about thought, selfhood, and machine intelligence.

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Timestamps:

00:00 Michael Graziano on Consciousness and the Brain

03:47 Can Simple Creatures Be Aware?

06:56 Where Selfhood Begins: Models in the Brain

10:13 Why Awareness Is Useful for Control

14:09 The Phantom Limb Illusion and Consciousness

17:56 Consciousness as a Model, Not a Magic Spark

21:32 What the Brain Tells Itself About Experience

24:40 What Are You Actually Conscious Of?

27:18 Graziano's Critique of the Hard Problem

30:01 How Illusions Like the Body Schema Help Us Understand

33:00 Phantom Limbs, Puppets, and Ghost Awareness

35:08 What Is Attention, Really?

39:02 The Brain’s Internal Sketch of Focus

43:00 Attention Schema Theory Explained

47:09 How Brains Build the Feeling of Mind

50:25 Can Machines Ever Be Truly Conscious?

54:18 AI That Says “I’m Aware” — Should We Believe It?

58:10 When a Chatbot Starts to Suffer

01:02:45 Society’s Slow Acceptance of Machine Awareness

01:07:40 What Makes Human Selfhood So Stable?

01:12:10 Training AI to Build a Model of Us

01:16:05 Does AI Need a Theory of Mind?

01:20:00 Graziano on Theory of Mind and Early Development

01:24:25 Why Modeling Consciousness Matters in AI

01:28:52 Can Language-Free Minds Still Model Others?

01:30:28 ChatGPT and the Hinting Task — Reading Minds?

01:34:12 Storytelling, Semantics, and Machine Intentions

01:38:40 Could an AI Learn a Stable Personality?

01:41:01 What the Next Decade of Neuroscience Might Reveal

01:43:16 Final Thoughts: The Real Importance of Consciousness...❤️

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Charles Murray is one of the most influential — and most cancelled — social scientists of the last fifty years. Whether you see him as a dangerous contrarian or a data-driven truth-teller, Murray’s ideas have transformed how we think about intelligence, inequality, class, and what makes a society thrive.SPONSORS:Get Manta Sleep Mask: https://mantasleep.pxf.io/9LXagy and Code GIANTSMANTA10Mind Labs Pro Scientifically Rigorous Supplements: https://www.mindlabpro.com/?a_aid=67fd1cb8d9ad3&a_bid=6d45f5c3Expect to learn how his years in 1960s Thailand shaped his libertarian worldview, why he thinks welfare programs destroy long-term happiness, what “The Iron Laws of Social Programs” reveal about human behaviour, why he advocates for a Universal Basic Income — and why he believes it could save community, family, and meaning itself. We also cover the controversial genetics of intelligence, embryo selection, the dangers of elite cognitive stratification, and why he thinks Brave New World was more prophetic than 1984.And yes — we go there. Chapter 13. Race, IQ, academic cowardice, media distortion, and why Murray believes honest conversation is the only way forward.This one will provoke, challenge, and surprise you. You won’t walk away thinking the same.Timestamps: 00:00 – Charles Murray’s Mission: Happiness, Policy, and Meaning02:37 – Culture Shock in 1960s Thailand That Changed His Worldview06:07 – What Rural Thai Villages Taught Him About Human Nature12:31 – The Real Argument Behind Losing Ground17:15 – The Iron Laws of Social Programs (And Why They Fail)25:33 – Psilocybin, Cannabis & the Future of Drug Policy29:36 – The Bell Curve: What It Really Said About IQ and Class35:03 – Chapter 13: Race, IQ, and the Media Firestorm40:03 – Why Academia Privately Agreed but Publicly Condemned45:25 – Coming Apart and the Acceptable Version of the Same Argument47:03 – Should Scientists Be Held Responsible for Dangerous Ideas?57:15 – Murray’s Surprising Case for Universal Basic Income01:04:34 – Embryo Selection, Polygenic Scores & IQ Engineering01:12:07 – Brave New World vs 1984: Which Future Are We In?01:16:28 – Fertility Collapse and the Future of Human Societies01:19:11 – What the Internet Gets Wrong About Charles Murray...❤️ Subscribe to our main channel - https://www.youtube.com/@thegiantsshoulder?sub_confirmation=1💚 Follow on Spotify - https://open.spotify.com/show/5m3Gta5MtIYdk59pb2GJ7M?si=Ka2rAQv7TyqiC9wvGwERpA💜 Follow on Apple Podcasts - https://podcasts.apple.com/ie/podcast/the-giants-shoulder/id1752486249Download my FREE EBook 26 Neuroscience Books for 2026 HERE: https://thegiantsshoulder.com/