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In November 1622, the great diplomat Squanto died while leading a trade expedition with his English allies. Only a year had passed since he formed a treaty between the Pilgrims of Plymouth and the indigenous Wampanoag people. While the early years of English-Indian relations were marked by cooperation and accommodation, including the famous Thanksgiving feast, Squanto's passing marked a descent into a period of slowly ramping hostilities, culminating in the first war fought between English settlers and Native Americans.

This episode of Gladio Free Europe explores the continuing history of colonial New England, across the 1620s and '30s as the English population rapidly swelled, in large part due to the establish of the new Massachusetts Bay colony which would quickly overshadow Plymouth and the original Pilgrims. While the Pilgrims and Puritans maintained warm relations with some native peoples, such as the great Mohegan chief Uncas, competition over land and resources drew them into conflict with others.

Though little known today, the Pequot War would have particularly grave consequences on English-indigenous relations, as it set the precedent for mass slaughter of Indian women and children and ended with the enslavement of the entire Pequot nation. Massachusetts and Connecticut are not remembered as slave societies, but captive Native Americans formed an essential role in the colonial economy and helped normalize the institutions of slavery and racial segregation across the English colonies.

Listen to understand how the peace of the First Thanksgiving collapsed into the bloodshed and subjugation that defined the American colonial experience, and try to uncover how the consequences of this turn towards violence shaped our country for the worse for centuries to come.

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In 1615, just days before the New Year, famed astronomer Johannes Kepler received the news that would change his life. His mother Katharina had been accused as a witch. Over the next 6 years, the Keplers would battle these charges with every means at their disposal, just as the world around them began to collapse into the carnage of the Thirty Years' War.

Gladio Free Europe continues our foray into the dusky world of European witchcraft with our account of the witch of Katharina Kepler. Liam and Russian Sam explore how at the cusp of modernity, one of the figures most responsible for heralding changes in science and reason found himself battling against the forces of superstition. While a belief in witchcraft is now rightfully considered archaic and irrational, many people in this time attempted to reconcile theories of black magic with modern techniques of logic and rhetoric. This makes Katharina's charges, and her son's attempts to fight them, an amazing chapter of the history of both science and magic in Early Modern Europe.

This episode touches on so many topics and themes explored on this podcast in previous years. The story of Katharina Kepler is a incredible skeleton key for understanding the changes that erupted out of Germany over 400 years ago and, in that bloody process, gave us the modern world.

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Each Christmas season, the mountain peoples of Europe are beset by monsters. Fearsome figures like Krampus, Perchta, and the Kuker descend into quaint hilltop villages, sometimes to spread holiday cheer, sometimes to hasten the coming of spring, and sometimes just to sew chaos and discord. These figures are all part of similar winter celebrations found across the Alps, stretching from their western foothills in France all the way to the Dinaric Alps of the Balkans. Due to the primal nature of these traditions, in which men and women wear the skins of beasts and the faces of demons, scholars and churchmen have wondered for decades if these Christmas festivals could really be a remnant of much older traditions.

On this week's episode of Gladio Free Europe, Liam and Russian Sam explore the history of these Christmastime monsters, and the widespread traditions of people wearing their costumes to parade through the streets. While drawing a straight from Krampus to ancient Alpine paganism is not particularly easy, some of these figures offer interesting parallels to what we know of the traditional pantheons that Christianity supplanted.

Historians today are much hesitant to attribute modern beliefs to paganism than they might have been in the time of the Brothers Grimm. But it's clear that these traditions are among the oldest in Europe, with interesting to the development of witchcraft lore and even the spread of deadly witch hunts across medieval and Early Modern Europe.

Join us on a trip to the snowy highlands of Austria, Germany, Slovenia, and Bulgaria and decide for yourself if these winter monsters may be our last remnant of the pagan world.

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This week, friend of the pod John Bellamy Poster commandeered a gunship and made his way onto Gladio Free Europe to discuss 19th century Japanese history in the backdrop of the unique historical manga Golden Kamuy.

Exploring the pivotal moments that reshaped Japan, John takes us through the monumental arrival of Commodore Perry's black ships, an event that broke Japan's 220-year-old policy of isolation and precipitated a domino effect of change. We delve into the Meiji Restoration, an era of rapid modernization and westernization, which saw the overthrow of the Tokugawa shogunate and the reinstatement of imperial rule. The Boshin War, a civil war that symbolized the end of the samurai era, is examined through the lens of its influence on Japanese society and politics. Lastly, we traverse the rugged terrains of Hokkaido and discuss the beginning of its colonization, shedding light on the cultural and economic impacts this had on the indigenous Ainu people, as well as Japan itself.

Interspersed with references to the gripping saga of Golden Kamuy, John explains how this historical manga offers a visceral narrative that intertwines these significant events with the lives of its richly developed characters. Join us on Gladio Free Europe for a journey through the transformative epochs of Japan, brought to life by history and manga alike.

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We return to the dark foothills of the Carpathians in our continuing history of Transylvania. This episode focuses on Europe's most infamous countess, Elizabeth Bathory, accused of torturing and killing up to 600 hundred young girls gathered from across Central Europe. While it's now agreed that Elizabeth Bathory was not a vampire, and didn't even bathe in anyone's blood, whether or not she was a serial killer has led to some interesting debate.

Join us as we lay out the facts of the Bathory case and decide for yourself if this enigmatic nobleman woman was Transylvania's Jeffrey Dahmer or the innocent victim of a Habsburg conspiracy. Afterward, we chart the the development of the 19th century interest in both vampires and Eastern Europe, beginning with Lord Byron and culminating in Bram Stoker's 1897 masterpiece Dracula—not only one of the most influential novels ever composed, but also an amazing window into the imperial anxieties of late Victorian Britain.

Protect your neck, kid! We're back to Transylvania.

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Americans are known for many things. Geographic insight of Eastern Europe is not one of them. Yet every American over age six can tell you which Romanian region is the home of Count Dracula. Thanks to the incredible popularity of Bram Stoker's 1897 novel, Transylvania has a unique place in the American and British popular consciousness, totally beyond that of any other province in this part of the world. To see how this came to pass, we have to understand the ways that Dracula is a snapshot of Victorian fears, fascinations, and colonial psychoses and explore the real history of this long-contested region.

In this two-part series, Liam and Russian Sam pore over the ancient tomes to uncover both the history of Transylvania and the strange, circuitous path that gave this region its uniquely macabre reputation, from the first invasions of the Magyars that terrified Christian Europe, to the establishment of German colonies that may have inspired by the Pied Piper legend, and ultimately the blood, brutal career of Vlad the Impaler. Although he never actually ruled Transylvania, the real-life Dracula's persecution of German-speakers became one of Europe's first media spectacles, giving this proud eastern boyar an afterlife that he still enjoys today.

Don't forget the garlic as you join Gladio Free Europe on this excursion down the Danube, as we venture into the land beyond the forest.

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In 1869, the Meiji Emperor declared the northern island of Hokkaido to be sovereign territory of Japan. In a process direclty inspired by American colonization, Japanese settlers were brought in to "civilize" the territory, a process which would have terrible consequences for the indigenous inhabitants -- a non-Japanese people known as the Ainu.

Japanese colonists and western onlookers derisively viewed the Ainu as isolated primitives, at best isolated remnants of the ancient Jomon people ancestral to the mainland Japanese. This is nonsense. The Ainu and their predecessors have a rich history of interaction with the peoples of Asia, including the Japanese, and have an illustrious history that goes back many hundreds of years.

This episode of Gladio Free Europe charts the course of Ainu history before the conquest of Hokkaido. Using archaeology and archaeogenetics, cover the ancient mingling of various Northeast Asian peoples who populares the island and investigate longstanding claims that the Ainu are related to various outside groups. Chinese early Japanese sources also give us incredibly insights into early relations between Hokkaido and the outside world. We discuss the fearsome Emishi people, a medieval community that has long been associated with the Ainu, who feature prominently in the film Princess Mononoke, and recount how the expansion of Ainu people into mainland Siberia led to a long war against the Mongols.

By the Sengoku Era, feudal warlords began competing for access over the growing Hokkaido trade, which led to the establishment of Japanese settlements on the island. In this period, the Ainu came under Japanese occupation without falling under the protection of Japanese law. This exploitative situation had profoundly negative consequences for the indigenous people, leading to two major revolts against the settlers.

While the Ainu remain colonized by Japan today, their survival exposes the myth of homogeneity central to Japanese nationalism.

Please join us for this discussion on one of Asia's most intriguing and inspiring peoples.

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In 1936, acclaimed German exile director Fritz Lang made his American debut: Fury. The ripped-from-the-headlines story of a deadly false accusation was acclaimed by critics as the best drama of the year, but audiences and studio executives shunned the film for its dark content and uncomfortable social commentary: particularly how Lang shed light on the crimes of his adopted country, including the brutal crisis of lynching.

With Spencer Tracy playing the accused, and by setting the film in the Midwest, Fritz Lang would fear for the rest of the life that he was a "coward" for not addressing the inherently racist character of lynchings in the South. But this film was based directly on a true series of murders, and one which — though lacking a racial angle and committed outside the South —helped spur the fight to end lynchings everywhere.

These murders began with the disappearance of Brooke Hart, a popular San Jose 22-year-old whose bright future was cut short in 1933 when he was kidnapped and held for ransom. Before any money could even change hands, the police traced the ransom call to two locals with a shady past who confessed to not only kidnapping Brooke Hart, but killing him that same night. Incensed, everyday citizens of Bay Area, including many respectable professionals, stormed into the local jail and subjected the two suspects to horrific torture before hanging both men from a tree. This event, often hailed as the "last lynching in California," was not condemned but celebrated by members of the press and even the governor. This blatant murder of the two suspects, a complete miscarriage of justice, eventually made its way into the national press. The early American Civil Liberties Union led a push to raise awareness of the killings of these men, an awareness which helped fight the broader plague of lynchings in all parts of the nation.

This episode of Gladio Free Europe explores those three San Jose murders and the production of Fury within the broader cultural context of the 1920s and '30s. Although these killings may not resemble our idea of a lynching today, they were part of a centuries-long American tradition of rabid violence in the name of revenge and domination. Fritz Lang's film helped shed light on these atrocities, and remind Americans that this was not a problem isolated to the South. Since the 18th century, lynchings have been committed in all parts of the country. And some of the most brutal lynchings, many of which were just as racially motivated as the reign of terror in the South, were committed in Hollywood's backyard.

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Put on your rubber boots, we're continuing our exploration of Southeast Asia as we excavate the deep jungle ruins of the Classical Age. From the Khmer Empire to Champa to Srivijaya and beyond, the early medieval period of Southeast Asian history is marked by the emergence of incredible states and empires whose histories, though tantalizingly obscure, hint at great narratives of conflict and cooperation.

This episode of Gladio Free Europe travels across the kingdoms and trade federations today comprising countries like Indonesia, Cambodia, and Vietnam. Of particular interest is the figure of the deva-raja, the god-king, who could command the ability to construct enormous monuments to Hindu gods and the principles of Buddhism beyond the scope of anything in Europe at this time. Join us to learn about the pirate-kings of Java, the Burmese King Arthur, Malay sea-cossacks, and how the far-reaching journeys of Austronesian merchants led to the introduction of Southeast Asia's most popular religion, Islam.

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For thousands of years, voyagers from all across the known world have docked their ships in the harbors of Southeast Asia. The diverse countries that make up this region have played an essential role in human history, witnessing the first waves of migration out of Africa, the development of the earliest oceanic trade networks, the synthesis of political and religious ideas from both China and India, and the birth of overseas colonial empires. But to most people in the west, the history of this region is entirely unknown.

This episode of Gladio Free Europe charts the course of early Southeast Asian history, starting with the miniature early humans of paleolithic Indonesia and ending with the formation of the great ancient civilizations of Cambodia, Myanmar, and Vietnam. Liam and Russian Sam dive through the deep past to uncover ancient migrations, lost kingdoms, the marriage of indigenous traditions with foreign ideas, and the beginnings of a trade system that would connect the farthest points of Eurasia and transform the entire world. Listen to this week's episode to find out why Southeast Asia may be the most interesting place on earth.